An Ecological Oratorio

Some food for thought

2011-11-15T14:56:00.000-08:00

This is a very interesting survey (deadline Dec 4th, 2011) and I would strongly encourage the readers of this blog to participate!

https://qtrial.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_9ZUOhPVGtTVEFiQ

Insanity in Zanesville

2011-11-06T12:43:00.000-08:00

1 baboon, 2 wolves, 2 grizzly bears, 3 mountain lions, 6 black bears, 8 lionesses, 9 lions, 18 Bengal tigers. Indeed a rich count for an impressive menagerie. Unfortunately, all shot dead in Ohio.

For the benefit of those readers who may be unaware: Vietnam war veteran Terry Thompson committed suicide, possibly spurred on by piling debts and a disintegrating marriage. But before this act, he did something unexpected- he released his 55 'exotic' animals from their cages in his Muskingum County Animal Farm in Zanesville and opened the fences. The result was utter chaos, resulting in the police hunting and killing the 49 animals listed above. The surviving six animals (3 leopards, 2 celebes macaques, and a grizzly bear) are being quarantined at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium.

Google image 'Ohio animals' and you will find quite a many photos of the surreal carnage (which gave me nightmares for a long time). What struck me was how the animals were shot down dead by the police. Majority of the population seemed to justify this action. After all, the deputies didn’t have tranquilisers, it was close to nightfall, and it wasn’t exactly in a middle of nowhere location. But even the use of tranquiliser darts didn’t seem to have much effect- some animals were killed since they charged at them (after all, tranquilisers does take a while to act); others were killed since they might lose sight of the tranquilised animal which might revert to normalcy when the tranquiliser wears off. Yet, I would maintain that the death count could have been significantly lowered by using strong tranquilisers and/or by strategically disabling them. Is the trigger-happy nature so ingrained that the only solution was this carnage?

More disturbing is the fact that a sizeable number of animals were donated to Thompson by owners who found them difficult to manage as adults. And what is much more disturbing is the high incidence of such ‘exotic’ animal owners in the US.
And many are the other questions: whatever spurred Thompson to make such a reckless action? Was it to spite his neighbours and the authority? Or was it just to give them some freedom as his final act? If he was deep in debt, surely selling a few acres of his farm should have been a better option than suicide? And what did these animals do to deserve such a bloody fate?

A matter of the heart

2011-10-09T16:17:00.000-07:00

Some years ago, I accompanied a young relative, a very eager science graduate working on particulate matter, as she conducted her research survey on public perception of particulate matter and its effects in a certain borough of London. Particulate matter (PM) is used to describe solid matter suspended in a gas or liquid phase. In the environment, particulates may occur naturally (as consequence of forest fires, volcanoes, dust storm, sea sprays etc) or via anthropogenic activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in automobile exhausts and other industrial processes. PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometres or less. Unsurprisingly, densely populated metropolitan areas in developing countries are hot spots for PM. The exercise with my relative was an eye-opener, and also quite fun as we pounced on shoppers, city workers on lunch breaks, pedestrians in Central London etc., armed with our clip boards and ticking or crossing their responses. I enjoyed being the magician’s assistant….but that is another story.

All this came back to me as I read the recent article by Bhaskaran et al, of the London School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, who studied the effects of air pollution on the risk of heart attack- specifically whether alterations in pollution levels on an hourly timescale affects the short-term risk in urban settings of England and Wales, So what is the novelity in this study? The links between particular matter and heart and lung diseases is documented and there are several publications in these topics.In an earlier post in this site, David discussed a study where PM10 caused increase in blood pressure in traffic controllers in the metropolitan area of Sao Paolo. However, there is a wee difference in what this paper covered: This work considered the overall risk of heart attack in urban settings of England and Wales over very short time frames and it involved a large population size. In essence, this study looked at effects of very short-term exposure (which was not, previously possible due to technology limitations). In this mega-study of over 79000 individuals with a diagnosis of heart attack over three years from 15 cities( including Greater London, Greater Manchester, West Yorkshire, Bristol, Cardiff, Southampton) the team looked at PM10 and other pollutants such as ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide over five short periods of up to 72 hours. For the analysis of their results they used statistical modelling approach for single pollutant and multiple pollutants where they adjusted for factors that could influence and otherwise confuse data including ambient temperature, humidity, virus in the atmosphere ( both that for flu and for other infections- respiratory syncytial virus). The researchers found that increase in PM10 levels & NO2 levels was associated increase in risk for heart attacks 1-6 hours post-exposure;.The source of PM10 & NO2 in urban areas is largely from automobile exhausts. Interestingly the increase in immediate risks was followed by reduction in risks at longer lags and therefore they found no net risk increase over 72 hour periods. They found a protective effect for increase in CO & ozone however; there was no change in overall risk over 72 hours leading the team to speculate that ischaemic events that would have occurred soon were advanced by a few hours. Most studies so far had shown the effects after years of chronic exposure and herein lies the difference of this study. A previous small study in Greater Boston with less than 1000 subjects showed an increased risk 1-3 hours after exposure of PM10. The risk was 11% which is higher than that observed in the current study. What do the results mean cumulatively? Remember this was a statistical exercise, though a worthy one. It would still be interesting to explore the physiological, cellular, & molecular basis of organ responses to short-term exposure to PM10 which will further our understanding. It might also be interesting to pursue questions such as, are there individuals of a particular genetic signature who might be prone to the effects of short-term exposure and low doses of PM more than others? the effect of age etc. Are similar trends seen in respiratory disorders? Does PM exposure compound the effects in vulnerable populations? All these questions remain.

But what does the study mean to the society as a whole and what can we do? The results in addition to the existing body of evidence should send warning bells to the world but emerging economies that are mushrooming urban sprawls. The recent UN summit highlighted the importance of non-communicable diseases including cardiovascular disease on the global health. With NCDS (CVDS and cancer) accounting to 36 million of global deaths in 2008 WHO stats, the UN draft resolutionon (dated 16 September 2011) submitted by the President of the General Assembly - political declaration of the high level meeting of the general assembly on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases -concedes the gravity of the situation and ‘recognizes that prevention must be the cornerstone of the global response to NCDS’ and identified several modifiable factors including diet and tobacco smoke that results in the rise of NCDS and called for ‘reducing their exposures’. These are valid and commendable. However, a glaring omission is the lack of mention of air pollutants contributing to NCDs. In the UN document, the closest air pollution is touched upon is with the reference to pollution from cooking stoves used for indoor cooking and heating. In essence, the enumerated risk factors do not include particulate matter from vehicles!!.

The results in this paper and the other background research cannot be ignored and should prompt usto push for measures for cutting down particulate matter emissions. Prevention is certainly a better option than treatment and cure as the UN draft declaration as well as common sense dictate. Importantly, prevention is something that is easy to achieve, but requires efforts starting from the individual to local to the global.

http://ecoratorio.blogspot.com/2011/08/stuck-in-traffic.html

http://www.ghd-net.org/negotiations/un-summit-non-communicable-diseases/official-documents

http://www.psr.org/environment-and-health/code-black/blog/regulating-killer-particulate-matter.html

Bhaskaran K, Hajat S, Armstrong B, Haines A, Herrett E, Wilkinson P, & Smeeth L (2011). The effects of hourly differences in air pollution on the risk of myocardial infarction: case crossover analysis of the MINAP database. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 343 PMID: 21933824

Seven wonders of the natural world

2011-09-25T09:48:00.000-07:00

The beauty of the natural world is simply indescribable. And this makes it all the more difficult to participate in the global campaign (voting via the website of New 7 Wonders of Nature until 11.11.11) on selecting the seven wonders of the natural world from 28 shortlisted contenders.

I was rather spoilt for choices (did expect to find Son Doong Cave of Vietnam and the Aurora Borealis, though) and eventually nominated the Amazon, Iguazu Falls, Angel Falls, Mud volcanoes of Azerbaijan, Dead Sea, Great Barrier Reef, and the underground river in Philippines. But I wouldn’t be surprised if this follows the trend of Eurovision contests, with the voting population choosing. But perhaps pros outweigh the cons: there will be increased awareness of the natural world and, hopefully, increased efforts in preserving these.

Lemurs in London

2011-09-24T12:51:00.000-07:00

Green spaces in urban areas are sinks for pollutants from vehicles and source of oxygen. They are also havens where city dwellers can forget their cares and relax amidst the towering trees. Most cities are overpopulated and congested and like pressure cookers; green spaces help the city dwellers to vent steam or just stand and stare and are essential for physical and mental health.

London has its fair share of greens paces. There are the big parks such as the Hyde Park, Regent’s Park, Green Park in Central London not to mention Kew gardens which is removed from the heart of the city. But several squares in the city also have enclosed gardens some of which are for public use and others which are for the use for the residents. Unofficial estimates claim that there are more than 3,000 parks and open spaces in the city. Many of the famous parks in London owe their existence to the Victorians who invented and shaped the concept of public parks.

I have never more appreciated the concept of these artificial green spaces than recently. After moving from tranquil and pristine Scotland, I ended up in the heart of the big city. Whilst this was exciting, my journey to work on the tube and the pollution around the area where I lived aggravated respiratory conditions which forced me to search for a greener area. I was fortunate to move to a nice green area in North West London near the Hampstead Heath. The part of the Heath closer to my house is called the Golders Hill Park. It is green , tranquil has manicured lawns , mature trees, and even has a small zoo. During the sweaty summer, it was an oasis. Several times after work I went straight to the park for a stroll to breathe the clean air and unwind. The admittance to the zoo in the Golders Hill Park is free which means everyone can enjoy what the park has to offer. Golders Hill Park zoo owes its existence to the Victorians . It has a herd of deer, collection of butterflies, rare and exotic birds such as laughing kookaburras, ring-tailed lemurs, cavy’s and ring-tailed coatis. The public are also given the chance to adopt the animals.

Whilst I have enjoyed the beauty of the park, and the company of lemurs, I have also noticed that since my move to my new home I have been free of respiratory complaints.

I hope that Londoners carry on with the Victorian traditions of green spaces in the city by creating new ones. I am glad that the entry to the Golders Hill Park is free. Can you put a price to these green spaces I wonder as it is indeed priceless?

Marine mammals and their future

2011-09-11T14:26:00.000-07:00

Marine mammals have borne the brunt of mankind’s unsustainable overexploitation, resulting in population decline and species extinction. Hunting for fur, blubber, and meat in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in the extinction of three species – the Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropicalis), Atlantic gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus), and the Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas). The most recent extinction, due to its use in traditional medicine, was that of the Baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) in 2008, a dolphin endemic to the Yangtze River.

In this backdrop, the August 16th edition of PNAS featured an excellent research (it truly is wonderful to come across such), entitled ‘Global distribution and conservation of marine mammals’, by Sandra Pompa and Gerardo Ceballos (National Autonomous University of Mexico) and Paul Ehrlich (Stanford). The mammalian species considered in the study were 129 in total (123 marine and 6 freshwater species), grouped into the orders of Cetacea, Sirenia, and Carnivora (common examples being whales, dolphins, porpoises, otters, seals, and polar bears) .

Method
The researchers created geographic range maps for the 129 species and the map of the water bodies were split into grids of roughly 10,000 km2. They determined the number of species in each grid cell and calculated the total number of cells occupied by each species. Breeding, calving, and feeding grounds, and migratory routes were also factored in. The result was a composite global distribution map of water bodies, revealing locations of ‘global species richness, irreplaceable sites, endemism, and threatened species.'

Results
1. All species can be represented in 20 global key conservation sites that cover at least 10% of the species' geographic range. These sites were determined on the basis: number of species present (species richness), severity of the risk of extinction for each species, and whether the species was endemic to the area.

2. Preserving 9 of such sites (mostly in temperate latitudes located off the coasts of Baja California in Mexico, the Atlantic coast of North America, Peru, Argentina, north-western Africa, South Africa, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand) would protect the habitat of 83.72% (108/129) of marine mammal species (including 5 endemic species) since these have high species richness.

3. The remaining 11 sites (6 freshwater, 5 marine: areas around Hawaiian and Galapagos Islands, Kerguelen Islands in the southern Indian Ocean, San Felix and Juan Fernandez Islands off the coast of Chile, Mediterranean Sea, Lake Baikal in Siberia, Caspian Sea, and major rivers such as the Amazon, Ganges, Indus, and Yang-tze) were tagged ‘irreplaceable key conservation sites’ of great conservation value due to the presence of endemic species, which, consequently, face a greater risk of extinction.
Eg. Galapagos fur seal (A. galapagoensis) and the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus).

4. Strong correlation of marine mammal species richness with human impacts (Spearman rank correlation (rs = 0.693, n = 46,164, P < 0.01 for climate disruption; rs = 0.666, n = 46,164, P < 0.01 for pollution; and rs =0.678, n = 46,164, P < 0.01 for shipping). The existing deterioration of the marine ecosystems due to anthropogenic activities (and the potential for more deterioration not just at these sites but also elsewhere) was evidenced by around 70% percent of most impacted areas being within or near key conservation areas. Factoring in other impacts such as commercial fishing would result in stronger correlation (and perhaps also global climate change, habitat degradation, ocean acidification, exploitation of natural resources such as oil and gas, hunting, tourism, and plastics?)

5. 10% of all marine mammals were considered to be vulnerable, 11% endangered, and 3% critically endangered. The following vulnerable species were identified:

i. Vaquita (a porpoise species), endemic to the Gulf of Baja California, has the most restricted range. Its population has been declining rapidly and there are only 150-300 individuals in the wild (1/5 of the population are killed in gillnets each year).

ii. Sea lions such as the endemic Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) and the Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki), and the restricted range New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri).

iii. Seals such as the freshwater and endemic Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica), and the endemic Galapagos fur seal (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) and Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi).

iv. Whales at the brink of extinction, such as North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) and Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), due to overharvesting, pollution, bycatch, and exhaustion of prey-species populations.

v. Dolphins such as the endemic New Zealand dolphin (Cephalorhynchus hectori) and the restricted range Australian Snubfin dolphin (Orcaella heinsohni).

Implications
This research could be a useful tool for environmental organisations and governments in identifying conservation areas and anthropogenic threats so as to protect endangered marine mammals and keep the oceans’ ecosystem functional. Mammals hold a lofty position in the food chain- consequently, their population dynamics would affect all other components of an ecosystem (and in human communities, by extension).

Pompa S, Ehrlich PR, & Ceballos G (2011). Global distribution and conservation of marine mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108 (33), 13600-5 PMID: 21808012

And the must read: http://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2011/07/27/1101525108.DCSupplemental/sapp.pdf

Image source: Apollo 17

Mr Wolf, I presume?

2011-08-28T05:27:00.001-07:00

Yes, appalling as it sounds, I read the Trinity edition of my alumni magazine only now. One of the stories (pg 13) caught my eye for various reasons.

Those of us who have a long-standing interest in Egyptian mythology would recall Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the dead, who held the unappealing portfolio of funerals, afterlife, mummification, fate of souls, and protection of the dead and their tombs. This was presumably because Anubis’ animal counterpart, the Egyptian Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster; Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833), preferred to occupy burial grounds. C.a.lupaster was considered to be a large, rare subspecies of the golden jackal (Canis aureus; Linn. 1758) even though there has been a historic (ahem) bone of contention over whether it is a jackal or a wolf (given its wolf-like morphology). Ancient Greeks considered these to be smaller versions of the European wolves; evolutionary biologist Thomas Huxley, after comparing the skulls of C.a. lupaster and Indian wolves, considered the species as grey wolf; Walter Ferguson (1981) argued that it was a species of wolf after studying its cranial measurements.

But research published earlier this year by collaborators from Oxford University's Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU), University of Oslo, and Addis Ababa University has established the Egyptian jackal’s true skin. When the mitochondrial DNA of the Egyptian jackal was compared with that of the golden jackal, wolves, and wolf-like canids, the results demonstrated that the Egyptian jackal (whether in Egypt or Ethiopia) is (and should be renamed as) an African Wolf, a subspecies of grey wolf or a separate species in itself, which existed alongside the golden jackals and the rare Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis, an unique but endangered species). Furthermore, sequencing of mtDNA from Ethiopian highland golden jackals revealed that these were, in fact, Egyptian jackals (i.e. the African Wolf). African wolves are closely related to the Indian (Canis lupus pallipes) and Himalayan wolves (Canis lupus chanco- with 2.4% divergence).

What does this bode for the species? The authors of the PLoS study called for assessing the status of the African wolf. Its previous classification as a subspecies of golden jackals meant being listed as a species of least concern by the IUCN. But since this is now the only grey wolf species in Africa, this could be rare and endangered.

References:

Rueness EK, Asmyhr MG, Sillero-Zubiri C, Macdonald DW, Bekele A, Atickem A, & Stenseth NC (2011). The cryptic African wolf: Canis aureus lupaster is not a golden jackal and is not endemic to Egypt. PloS one, 6 (1) PMID: 21298107

Oxford University's Press Office

WildCRU

Image: Golden jackal by Stig Nygaard

More scientific grub on migration

2011-08-23T09:29:00.000-07:00

A previous post presented how those characteristic summer chorus of the English countryside may be soon an event of the past. This rapid decrease in the population of migratory birds in the UK was attributed to habitat destruction and other such anthropogenic factors, probably somewhere along the migration corridor. So what does habitat destruction and other anthropogenic influences bode for migrating organisms? Vishwesha Guttal and Iain Couzin, of Princeton University, try to predict this (amongst other interesting stuffs) via models explained in their paper on ‘Social interactions, information use, and the evolution of collective migration’, an interesting read, although a tad too technical for the layman.

Organisms, all along the phyla of the animal kingdom, are believed to migrate as a result of detecting and responding to factors governing resource availability. The foundational theory considers each migrating individual as “‘information processing units’, with interactions amongst them providing collective benefits”, such as improved migratory direction. Should an individual commit an error in the information processing, the aforementioned grouping would average the individual measurements, so as to deduce the mean migratory direction.

These migrating populations have two types of individuals:

-Leaders, who have a higher ability to detect and respond to directional gradient from the environment, but with weak (or none) social skills. They tend to occupy frontal or peripheral positions and expend more energy in trotting off the beaten track and facing dangers such as predators.
-Social individuals, who have strong social skills but weak ability to detect and respond to gradient. However, they utilise the strengths of the leaders for a free ride.

Population density, according to the model, is a crucial leverage factor. Extremely low-density populations (ergo, lesser probability of encountering others) comprises of leaders, thus resulting in solitary migration. Extremely high-density populations results in resident population due to a lack of migration (attributed to frequent ‘collisions among individuals’). It is when leaders and social individuals coexist that collective migration ensues. The bottom-line is that ‘the evolution of the migratory strategy (resident, solitary, or collective) is determined by the ecology of the species (i.e population density, habitat structure, costs and benefits of migration)’. Presumably, there could be other regressors as well....

Anthropogenic factors have been exerting pressures (such as habitat fragmentation and changes in population density) on the existence of many migratory species (examples cited in the paper includes: American bison and its steep decline in its population density; extinction of passenger pigeon) and migratory patterns (Blackcaps becoming resident; Eastern house finch exhibiting the reappearance of lost migration). As habitat fragmentation increased, the individuals adapt their migratory strategy by travelling longer distances to find an appropriate habitat. The researchers’ model predicted that in such cases, paradoxically, the population’s migration ability reduces relatively gradually with increasing habitat fragmentation. The reasoning is that: ‘at high levels of habitat fragmentation, no individuals evolve to be leaders, and therefore, the population loses its migratory ability. Even after restoring the habitat, a population’s migratory ability does not recover at the same habitat quality at which it declined due to the relatively short time scale of these changes’.

Guttal V, & Couzin ID (2010). Social interactions, information use, and the evolution of collective migration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107 (37), 16172-7 PMID: 20713700

Image Source: The Wandering Angel

Now potted plants. Next what?

2011-08-20T10:31:00.001-07:00

When I read about Goldman Sachs’ HQ in London kicking out ‘pot plants’, as part of a cost-cutting measure, my first reaction was to conjecture how ‘pot plants’ ended up in the investment bank! Jokes apart, Jonathan Sibun (Daily Telegraph) writes that the bank is evicting potted plants since, apparently, many £££s per annum is spent on purchasing and maintaining these plants (I haven’t ever been to the Goldman Sachs HQ, so I haven’t a clue what these plants are- expensive orchids? 10 ft tall palms?). This measure has met opposition from some of the staff who tried to prevent their expulsion. The article goes on to state that,

‘In some cases, a solution is believed to have been found only after employees agreed to sign forms guaranteeing to take responsibility for particular plants. Many of those plants that were removed are believed to have been given to charities’ (wonder which charities are richer by several potted plants?).

Is there truly the need for such a drastic measure? As is the practice in many offices, employees could have brought their own plants to instil some life in the workplace. Alternatively, employees could maintain the plants- one glass of water per day should suffice, I think. Nothing as demanding as playing with money.

If Goldman Sachs is so keen on cutting overheads, I can think of a few measures which would also help the environment at the same time. But I wonder whether, in time, the bank’s purported CSR practices would be relegated to the backburner as part of these cost-cutting initiatives.

Source: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/banksandfinance/8712286/Pot-plants-in-firing-line-as-Goldman-Sachs-cuts-costs.html

Image Source: © Zak Kendal/cultura/Corbis

Migratory bird species in the UK

2011-08-19T10:03:00.000-07:00

I will always maintain that the loveliest spring and summer are experienced in England. Apart from the profusion of flowers and exceptionally pleasant weather, there was always a persistent backdrop of birdsong, regardless of whether I was in town or country, sidewalks or fens. This chorus now stands the danger of disappearing from the British Isles, as explained in the 2010 Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) report which lists the statistics of bird population from 1995 to 2010. But first the good news…

Good news:

- Two warbler species have reached their highest numbers in 15 years: Blackcap (+73%) and Whitethroat (+25%). The Whitethroat population had plummeted in 1969 due to the drought in Sahel (the arid zone south of Sahara where they spend winter), but have now risen probably due to increased rainfall in the region.

-Chiffchaff (+52%).

Bad news:
10 species have experienced a decline in population numbers between 1995 and 2010. Of these, 8 are annual migratory species which spend autumn and winter in sub-Saharan Africa and return to the UK in spring and summer for breeding (viz, turtle dove, cuckoo, nightingale, wood warbler, whinchat, yellow wagtail, pied flycatcher, and spotted flycatcher).

-Turtle dove: a decline of 74%, with 2009-2010 experiencing a slump of -21%.
-Nightingales: decline of -63%, with a -27% fall in the 2010 level from the 2009 levels. Now seen mainly in SE England.
-Wood warblers: -60%
-Whinchats: -55%
- Yellow wagtails: -55%
- Pied flycatcher: -51%
- Cuckoo: decline of -48%; Now more commonly sighted in Scotland than in England.
- Spotted flycatcher: -47%
The two non-migratory species which have shown a marked decline are:
- willow tit (-76%)
-grey partridge (-54%)

The trend is that relatively short-distance migrants (such as Blackcap and Chiffchaff which fly down to southern Spain and Northern Africa, without crossing Sahara) are doing better, whilst those that travel further (such as Turtle Dove, Cuckoo, and Nightingale) are showing a steady decline in population. The reasons are postulated to be habitat destruction (due to anthropogenic factors), desertification, hunting, and repercussions of climate change- but it is most likely to be a combination of many factors. Since the bird species’ migration corridor covers many regions/countries during the course of the year, the manifestation of any such factor anywhere could act as a leverage point.

* I apologise for any mistakes which might occur when one had taken a cocktail of medicines (am battling a wrist sprain, (another) bout of food poisoning, and an exceptionally torturous flu- all at the same time).

Image source: Scott Barrow/Corbis

Stuck in traffic

2011-08-09T16:06:00.000-07:00

As you sit in the rush hour queues, pity the poor guy or girl directing the traffic, and imagine the fumes they are breathing in. In Brazil, with rapidly expanding car ownership, but not necessarily expanding road space, this is an increasing problem.

A recent study* in the city of Santo Andre, part of the metropolitan region of Sao Paulo, focused on traffic controllers. The study focused on male, non smoking, traffic controllers who had been exposed for over 3 years. As the authors note, one criticism of the study is that it might actually underestimate health concerns, as unhealthy controllers were excluded from the test group to achieve homogeneity. Thus the subjects might be constitutively more able to adapt to air pollution, or just have healthier working practices.

The study concentrated on particles in the air (from dust, car exhaust etc) and ozone. The level of particulate matter has fallen in recent years, below the official limits of 50 and 25 ug/m3 for PM10 and PM2.5 respectively (PM 10 and 2.5 are different particle sizes), but that is still considered hazardous by many observers. Road dust accounts for about 30% of air pollution and is mainly composed of PM 10 particles, so the authors concentrated on this size in particular. Furthermore ozone levels are increasing, especially at times of high temperatures and low humidity. High ozone has been associated with cardiovascular disease.

They found that both PM10 particulates and ozone were associated with increased blood pressure, but in different ways. PM10 pollution caused a blood pressure rise almost immediately, which still remained 4 hours later, whilst the effect of ozone delayed for 2 hours of exposure, but was still apparent 5 hours later.

So, the traffic controllers are suffering measurable cardiovascular effects every day, continuing even when the pollution is removed, and in quite a stressful job. It might not end there. The so called "interior diesel" used in some cities such as Santo Andre has a lot more sulphur than the diesel distributed in the main cities (1,200 vs 500 ppm), which has been shown to cause endothelial disfunction, oxidative stress, and probably long term hypertension.

It's a dangerous job, standing in the middle of traffic, in more ways than one.

Sérgio Chiarelli P, Amador Pereira LA, Nascimento Saldiva PH, Ferreira Filho C, Bueno Garcia ML, Ferreira Braga AL, & Conceição Martins L (2011). The association between air pollution and blood pressure in traffic controllers in Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil. Environmental research, 111 (5), 650-5 PMID: 21570068

*P.S. Chiarellietal et al 2011. The association between air pollution and blood pressure in traffic controllers in SantoAndre, Sao Paulo, Brazil Environmental Research 111 650–655

Development vs Environment

2011-08-07T04:41:00.000-07:00

Actioni contrariam semper et æqualem esse reactionem: sive corporum duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse æquales et in partes contrarias dirigi.

So spells out Newton’s 3rd law of motion, also equally valid in a tug of war between the government and the residents bordering the Veli Lake in Trivandrum district.

It all centers around the construction of a 220-metre long and 100-metre wide ‘breakwater’ at the mouth of the Veli estuary, designed as a flood control scheme under the Rs 12 crore ‘Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project’. The general aim is to prevent the seasonal formation of a sandbar at the estuary, thus ensuring a continuous flow of water (from Veli Lake, the interconnected Aakulam Lake, feeder canals viz. Parvathy Puthanar, Amayizhanjan, and Chakka, and rivers viz. Karamana and Killi) into the Arabian Sea. The enumerated benefits are:
-control of flooding in the city, especially during the rainy season,
-addressing the rampant problem of aquatic weeds in the Veli and Aakulam lakes,
-removal of water stagnation in the lake, thus improving water quality,
-enabling fishing even during storms (!!!)
-boosting the development of the Veli tourist village.

Local groups are reluctant to view these as ‘benefits’. The Veli and Aakulam lakes (and their feeder canals and rivers) are already plagued by severe water pollution, thanks to garbage dumping and waste water (both domestic and commercial- including hospitals and factories). Furthermore, factories empty their chemical effluents (usually, untreated) either into the lake (and its feeder canals), the estuary, or into the nearby sea. They are concerned that:
-the breakwater would pollute the sea more since many would take advantage of an easy disposal of effluents and waste water,
-this would affect the fish population and, consequently, jeopardise the livelihood of local fishermen,
-scum and solid waste would be deposited on the beaches, affecting the tourism.

Usually, when there is a will (i.e. the government’s), there’s a way. It remains to be seen how this issue will be resolved. The pale yellow patch are the effluents from the factories, thoughtfully dumped into the sea.

Sources: local newspapers

The fine line

2011-07-29T21:01:00.000-07:00

Animal-human skirmishes are recurrent occurrences, typically at forest-settlement boundaries. Such examples abound in the forested, mountainous Western Ghats, where the humans have (legally and illegally) established their dwellings and agricultural fields virtually on the doorsteps of the forest inhabitants. Such conflict can be mainly classified into two:

-When humans encroach (mostly unlawfully) into their territories to collect firewood or forest products (including illegal felling of trees and hunting of deer and rabbits).

-When wild animals stray into the settlements and agricultural lands, usually during times of drought when the streams dry up. In the case of Ponmudi, the Kallar river becomes the focus of such skirmishes: the areas bordering the perennial (but relatively shallow) river continue to be fringed with foliage and both parties wage their battle over the resources. This is further aggravated by humans who illegally harvest wild grasses and reeds (Ochlandra travancorica) during the fair weather. This deficiency and destruction of habitat shifts the animal population towards the fertile agricultural lands with consequences such as attacks by gaurs (Bos gaurus), elephants harvesting plantain and coconut trees, wild boars utilising the cultivated tubers, and bears searching for anything edible. It is not uncommon for deer to end up in cooking pots, resulting in leopards retaliating by feasting on goats, calves, and dogs (!). Similarly, jackals target chickens and there are cases of attacks by tigers too.

In the case of urban wildlife, the boundaries become vaguer. Our family home is located in an area supposed to have been a forest around 150-200 years ago (presumably until a manor was constructed for the Chief Secretary of the government). Since then, it has been transformed into a sector of houses (both old and new), most having limited grounds (those which do have what is termed ‘well-maintained’ grounds, i.e. backyards devoid of trees).

In this instance, I cannot state that humans have ejected the resident wildlife out of their territories- such an event would have happened quite a while ago. The area is still frequented by numerous local and migratory bird species, including kingfishers (who were very fond of our outdoor fish ponds), crow pheasants, kites, kestrels, pigeons, cranes, and herons, as well as palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), mongoose (Herpestidae), squirrels, and bats (to name a few). But such peaceful coexistence is not the norm. A neighbour has made the full use of urban wildlife by laying traps for civet cats and mongoose, both of which end up either in his cooking pan or sold for high prices to vendors of quack medicines (civet cat meat is supposedly a cure for asthma).

Snakes tend to reach deplorable ends, regardless of their nature (poisonous or non-poisonous). Even the rat snake (considered to be auspicious) suffers a terrible plight due to mistaken identity. In our grounds, we’ve had kraits (Bungarus coeruleus) and vipers, apart from a regular ‘visitor’ of nearly four decades- a 6-foot hefty cobra (Naja naja). But recently, after being burdened by just too many reports of snakes nesting in an aged clump of golden palm trees in our front garden (next to our verandah), the parents uprooted the thicket and found, to their surprise, a huge nest of vipers. This brings one to the question- where does one draw the line?

Mongoose caught in the trap of our neighbour

Ariel the lion

2011-07-22T10:32:00.000-07:00

There has been some degree of e-interest in the case of Ariel the lion. Ariel is a three year old, 140-kg lion, born in Brazil, in an animal shelter belonging to Raquel Borges. Unfortunately, a year ago, what started as a minor case of limping, within days culminated in an inability to move his hind legs. After a surgery to remove a herniated disc, he lost control of his front legs as well.

Tests failed to diagnose anything and veterinary neurologists from the Hebrew University are to publish their results on Ariel's case later this month. Some hypotheses have been voiced: a debilitating virus, a degenerative/autoimmune disease (potentially affecting his medulla causing the WBCs to attack the normal cells). Other potential causes could be Lactate Dehydrogenase-Elevating Virus which causes extensive destruction of motor neurons (Contag and Plagemann, 1989). One previous study communicated progressive hind limb ataxia, loss of proprioception, and eventual recumbency in five adult cheetahs in an Austrian zoo (Walzer and Kübber-Heiss, 1995), all of which had massive demyelination in their spinal cords. Interesting, the local zoo here in Trivandrum has also battled similar cases (in a leopard and tiger) and similar incidents have been reported in the forests.

His carers have launched a Facebook campaign and website to raise money towards his treatment and upkeep (circa $11,500 per month).

It was illuminating to read some of the responses from the readers, most of whom opined that the owners were cruel and selfish in keeping Ariel alive. As is the viewpoint of many an owner of pets, the consensus edged on euthanising Ariel. Indeed, the animal is in a terrible plight and I commend those who take such diligent care of him. But having been a pet owner for over 25 years, I empathise that it is exceptionally hard to put down a dear pet. Many of my pets (mostly rescued), over the years, have been down similar routes when vets would completely wash their hands off. In many a case, TLC, medicines, perseverance, and patience led them to complete recovery.

Contag, CH and PGW Plagemann (1989). Age-Dependent Poliomyelitis of Mice: Expression of Endogenous Retrovirus Correlates with Cytocidal Replication of Lactate Dehydrogenase-Elevating Virus in Motor Neurons. Journal of Virology, 63 (10), 4362-4369.

Walzer, C and A Kübber-Heiss (1995). Progressive Hind Limb Paralysis in Adult Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 26 (3), 430-435

Yellow gold : Turmeric and its promise

2011-06-27T12:43:00.000-07:00

Growing up in Southern India, we cultivated several vegetables and spices in our backyard, one of which was turmeric. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) belongs to the same family as ginger. It is rhizomatous herb and normally pieces of the rhizome are planted in the rainy months of July. In our hands, the plants did not require much care at all. No artificial fertilizers were used nor were the plants watered but only left to the mercy of nature. But our part of South India is blessed with rains anyway, at least then, before the global warming and stuff but that’s another story.

The rhizomes were harvested in the following summer. One signal that it was time for harvest was the death of the leaves. Once this occurred, the root tubers were all plucked out from the soil. This often coincided with the latter half of the summer vacations and was a joyous occasion for us when we were children. The tubers were then washed in water to remove the soil. By the time the mud was washed off our little palms would all be yellow. Imagine our delight when our hands turned read when we tried to wash it away with soap (Turmeric is a PH indicator turning from yellow to red in alkaline conditions). The tubers were then sun dried and pulverized to be used for culinary purposes.

Turmeric occupies a lofty place in Indian culture, well almost like gold. In fact nearly most of South Indian dishes use it as a seasoning. In Ayurveda, it is associated with a manifold health benefits. Apart from using turmeric powder to spice dishes, the fresh root tubers are ground and used as masques on the skin which issupposed to prevented sun induced damage and blemishes. It also plays an important role in auspicious ceremonies like weddings. In many sections of the Indian society the prospective bride and bridegroom have ritual baths with turmeric due to its edifying properties

For the last decade or so, turmeric has moved from the spice cupboards in Indian kitchens to the laboratory benches where researchers are investigating the overwhelming evidence of its' beneficial effects. It is estimated that turmeric has about 100 constituents. 5% of the rhizome comprises of essential oils and 5% curcumin, the latter is the best studied active substance. Curcumin is identified as responsible for most of the biological effects of turmeric although whether turmeric as a whole or curcumin is isolation is most effective is debated. Some believe that turmeric as a whole is superior than curcumin for some conditions (http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA400915/Curcumin-or-Turmeric.html). Indeed, most research activity has centred around curcumin in isolation. Imagine the complexity if the labs were to investigate the individual compounds that make up turmeric.

Turmeric can rightly be called ‘ the mother of all spices’ . In fact evidence indicates that it is anti inflammatory, anti carcinogenic and anti diabetic to name a few of its health benefits. How turmeric exerts is manifold benefits is only starting to unravel as several labs around the world are investigating the molecular mechanisms of curcumin. Limited evidence suggests that turmeric and its active compound, curcumin, are effective for rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases such as psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBS), inflammatory eye disease and familial adenomatous polyposis. Other inflammatory diseases where turmeric might play an important role are neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis. Indeed these diseases are less common among people living in the Asian subcontinent, where people regularly consume spices.

More in a future post

Check these links that review therapeutic roles curcumin:

Howes MJ, & Perry E (2011). The role of phytochemicals in the treatment and prevention of dementia. Drugs & aging, 28 (6), 439-68 PMID: 21639405

Rajasekaran SA (2011). Therapeutic potential of curcumin in gastrointestinal diseases. World journal of gastrointestinal pathophysiology, 2 (1), 1-14 PMID: 21607160

Wilken R, Veena MS, Wang MB, & Srivatsan ES (2011). Curcumin: A review of anti-cancer properties and therapeutic activity in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Molecular cancer, 10 PMID: 21299897

Park J, & Conteas CN (2010). Anti-carcinogenic properties of curcumin on colorectal cancer. World journal of gastrointestinal oncology, 2 (4), 169-76 PMID: 21160593

Pocernich CB, Bader Lange ML, Sultana R, & Butterfield DA (2011). Nutritional Approaches to Modulate Oxidative Stress in Alzheimer's Disease. Current Alzheimer research PMID: 21605052

Huang J, Plass C, & Gerhäuser C (2010). Cancer Chemoprevention by Targeting the Epigenome. Current drug targets PMID: 21158707

Dams on the Xingu

2011-06-11T08:25:00.001-07:00

On June 1st Dilma Rousseff, the President of Brazil, controversially gave permission for the company Norte Energia to begin building a hydroelectric dam on the Xingu river in the northern state of Para. This follows the granting of a provisional licence in January by the previous president, Lula da Silva, to begin land clearance and road construction, and years of court cases. A total of eleven cases have been filed against the project by the Federal Public Prosecutor, over various irregularities, the last being overturned in February.

Artists impression of the dam

The Belo Monte dam complex will in fact consist of 3 dams. The first, Pimental Dam, will be 36 metres tall, over 6 kilometres long, and will create a lake with a surface area of 129 square miles. This will supply one power station. Two canals will channel water down to another reservoir created by the Belo Monte dam, which will supply another power plant. The Belo Monte dam will be 90 metres tall but only 3.5 kilometres wide, and create a lake of 42 square miles. The whole complex is expected to cost 16 billion US$, with power cables costing a further US$ 2 billion.

For good or ill this is going to affect a lot of people.

Advantages

On the positive side, an immense amount of energy will be generated, the Belo Monte dam is the third largest hydroelectric project in the world after the Three Gorges Dam in China and the Itaipu dam between Brazil and Paraguay. Itaipu already supplies 19% of Brazil's energy needs and virtually all of Paraguay's. The planned capacity of Belo Monte is unclear, as we will see below, but it is claimed by EletroBras, the state electricity company to at least supply the state of Para (population 7.5 million). This of course is all power that would otherwise have to generated by fossil fuels or nuclear energy. Once built, the running costs will be minimal, and electricity will be provided continuously (well, again, see below) for over 50 years. It's not true that will be no carbon emissions. Studies of other Brazilian dams have found that as the water level falls and rises every year, vegetation flourishes in the tropical climate, only to be submerged and decay, releasing methane. But the amount is probably much less than an equivalent coal fired power station.

The location, with a natural drop in elevation, allows the use of a relatively low wall, and thus smaller reservoir, to generate power requiring a much bigger reservoir elsewhere. Thus, the argument goes, if you are going to have a dam, this is the place to have it.

Aluminium at Barcarena

Approximately 18,000 jobs will be created by the construction project, and another 25,000 indirectly, although of course most of these will cease when construction is finished. More long term will be aluminium processing plants powered by the dam, with a view to export to China. The planned Brazilian-Chinese bauxite processing plant at Barcarena, Para, will be the largest in the world. There are also existing Japanese and American plants which will be expanded. This gives Brazil a much higher value export product than simple ore.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages can be divided into social, practical and environmental.

Social
For a start over 20,000 people will be directly displaced. These people will need to be resettled. Then there are the people downstream, mainly from the Juruna and Arara tribes. As they will not be directly affected they have not been offered resettlement, but as the river is a major food supply and transport network, falling levels will possibly cause displacement anyway. This will probably be exasapated by increased levels of water borne diseases from more stagnant pools. In fact, the vast majority affected by this project will be indigenous peoples, and this has aroused a lot of resentment, and threats of violence.

In contrast, an estimated 100,000 migrants from other parts of Brazil will enter the area. It is not clear what infrastructure will be in place to support them.

Practical

A number of studies have cast doubt on the economic viability of the project. The ex-President of Sapesp, the Sao Paulo state water company , has claimed it will be one of the most inefficient hydroelectric power projects in Brazilian history. Mainly because of the seasonal nature of water supply via the Xingu river, so that it will be at 30% capacity or less from June to October.
Actually there is a solution to that - another dam. Although the intention is vehemently denied, a further dam at Altamira up stream would create a 2,000 sq mile lake and a year round water supply, making the whole project much more viable. It would also displace another estimated 25,000 people. The long term intention to build another dam would be easier to dismiss if the turbine capacity of the planned power stations were not considerably more than the likely water flow.

Another artists impression

Environmental

Construction of the dam required an environmental licence from IBAMA, the Brazilian environmental agency, and this was granted in February 2010. Controversially. Two IBAMA presidents and at least two senior officials have resigned claiming undue government pressure to approve the licence. Even now, the licence is technically provisional with many requirements yet to be met before a full licence can be granted, but that is moot as a judge has ruled that work can commence without a full licence.

Large amounts of forest will inevitably be lost. One concern is the loss of biodiversity as a number of species are found only within the area affected by the dam, and it is extremely unlikely they would survive the drying out and/or flooding of their habitats. This apparently includes the Plant eating piranha Ossubtus xinguense (actually it's omnivorous and will eat worms and shrimps) and the Xingu poison dart frog Allobates crombie, amongst others.

What is certain is that it is not just the area under the construction that will be affected. The influx of tens of thousands of migrants will consume a huge area of forest for building of homes and roads, and then farm land to support them.

Further Reading

Fearnside, P. (2006). Dams in the Amazon: Belo Monte and Brazil’s Hydroelectric Development of the Xingu River Basin Environmental Management, 38 (1), 16-27 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-005-0113-6

Sousa Júnior, W.C. and Reid, J. 2010. Uncertainties in Amazon hydropower development: Risk scenarios and environmental issues around the Belo Monte dam. Water Alternatives 3, 249-268

Painting with the same brush: herbal medicine

2011-06-05T23:29:00.000-07:00

Britons spend 4.5 billion GBP (60 billion GBP worldwide) on alternative medicine treatments, with the 150,000 alternative therapists in the UK being visited by one in five UK residents.

The above is a fact gleaned from the Economist, one of my favourite magazines which occupy a lofty position along with National Geographic, Nature, PNAS, and Science. They have, however, a rather interesting (and persistent) stance on alternative medicine: ‘Virtually all alternative medicine is bunk; but the placebo effect is rather interesting’.

Alternative medicine is a comprehensive term referring to a mish mash of traditional, indigenous, and unconventional medical practices such as acupuncture, aromatherapy, chiropractic, homeopathy, reflexology, reiki, and many more. Indeed, some of the practices does merit healthy scepticism. I cannot deny that there are quacks in alternative medicine and that many (if not all) do exaggerate the supposed benefits of the drugs/treatments. But then, all conventional medicine cannot be discarded as dangerous chemicals and expensive treatments which expand the bank accounts of GPs and pharmas. Neither can all unconventional medicine be discarded as outdated, bizarre, and toxic. It is up to the patient to make a well-informed decision. But it is highly debatable whether herbal medicine/ethnopharmacology should be painted with the same brush.

The Economist grudgingly admits that a few treatment (‘mostly herbs containing active drug molecules, do have proven benefits’). Yet, their conclusion is that it is none other than the placebo effect, i.e. ‘the strange and inadequately explained tendency of certain medical conditions to respond to anything the patient thinks is directed at treating them, even when the treatment in question could not possibly have a direct effect on the disease’. In other words, a treatment, per se, would have no effect on the condition, but the belief in its efficacy works wonders, resulting in somatic changes. Apparently, this works most effectively with psychological problems (or anything pertaining to emotions) such as depression and pain. And ‘the alternative-medicine industry plainly excels as a placebo delivery service’. The article concludes by pointing out that practitioners of conventional medicine could be less clinically detached, and more caring and attentive to the patient.

The fact is that many (not ‘few’ as claimed by the Economist) of the conventional medicines are/were derived from herbal products (Analgesics such as Aspirin from Salix, Morphine, Codeine from Papaver somniferum; Digitalin from Digitalis purpurea; Malarial drugs such as Quinine from Cinchona and Artemsinin from Artemisia annua; Reserpine from Rauwolfia serpentina; Physostigmine from Physostigma venenosum; Tubocurarine from Chondrodendron; for cancer-Vinblastine/Vincristine from Catharanthus roseus/Vinca rosea, Etoposide from Podophyllum, Paclitaxel/Docetaxel/Taxol from Taxus, Combretastatins from Combretum caffrum….. to state a few).

Many such herbal remedies have been used since time immemorial in indigenous medicines around the world. Indeed, adopting these remedies directly may pose the concerns of drug toxicology, side effects, and general effectiveness. It is equally likely that their effects may not be significant, whilst studies by pharmas (on their chemically synthesised products) might show significant results (one must not overlook the importance of sample size in getting significant results!). Furthermore, pharmas have more than sufficient capital to invest in large-scale research to test drug efficacy and toxicology prior to clinical trials. An ethnopharmacological research team lacks such resources.

Ma et al (2005) identified plant-derived medicines as becoming the next major commercial development in biotechnology. Their abstract states: ‘The advantages they offer in terms of production scale and economy, product safety, ease of storage and distribution cannot be matched by any current commercial system; they also provide the most promising opportunity to supply low-cost drugs and vaccines to the developing world’. Perhaps one emphatic evidence is in the form of the numerous clinical trials being conducted in the US on plant-derived medicines .

Conventional drugs too have side effects which we often overlook- after all, we blindly trust our GPs, believing that any medicine prescribed is fool-proof (reading the medicine's own fine print should throw at least some light on this). Extracting the active ingredients from a herb (thanks to coming across its usage in some traditional medicine), commercialising it and reaping the benefits, only to criticise the practice which had already identified its benefits centuries ago- a dog biting the hand that feeds?

What next? Chucking out vegetables?

References :
Ma, J. K-C., Chikwamba, R., Sparrow, P., Fischer, R., Mahoney, R., and R.M. Twyman (2005). Plant-derived pharmaceuticals – the road forward. Trends in Plant Science, Vol. 10, Issue 12, pp. 580-585.

Alternative medicine: Trust me, I've got a licence

Regulating alternative medicine: But does it work?

Medicine: There is no alternative

Image: Gingko biloba (© Creativ Studio Heinemann/Westend61/Corbis)

Super bugs and Super sleuths : E.coli outbreak in Europe

2011-06-02T15:51:00.001-07:00

Earlier this week on Monday came reports from Germany that 6 people who consumed raw vegetables were killed and hundreds rendered ill . Initial investigations pointed towards consumptions of raw cucumber, lettuce and tomatoes. The fatalities were attributed to hemolytic-uremic syndrome, or HUS, from E. Coli. Since then, more people have died and the infection has spread to different parts of Europe . Cases have been reported from Sweden, Austria, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. At the initial stages opinions about whether the strain was new differed between scientists. Scientists at the Beijing Genomic Institute called it a new "super-toxic" E. coli strain whilst the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said that it was a known strain.

Today the WHO announced that the German strain was novel and that it had never been isolated before in humans. With the death toll having risen to 18, whilst over 1000 people remain ill, German scientists are desperately trying to sequence the bacterial genome. The news from WHO also indicates that the strain had never been found in any animals which signifies that it could have come directly from the environment into humans. The scientific community is awaiting with bated breath for the results from sequencing of the genome of this deadly strain of bacteria . The sequence of this strain of E.coli might explain the differential infection pattern observed- the bacteria is mostly infecting adults, and generally women.

Emergence of super-bugs are of grave concern. In April, the Lancet reported bacteria carrying a gene that confers resistance to a major class of antibiotics identified in samples of drinking water and sewage effluents from New Delhi. This gene blaNDM-1 encodes the enzyme New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase 1 (NDM-1). Bacteria can pass genes easily through plasmids. The enzyme blocks the activity of a range of antibiotics. NDM-1-positive strains of both species have previously been found in hospitals in India and Pakistan and have already been seen in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in patients, some of whom had previously been in hospitals in the Indian subcontinent.

The problem with virulent bacteria as with most infectious agents is that it is hard to be confined. As of now, the source of the German E.coli strain has not been pin pointed. With bacterial outbreaks such as this there is nothing called a ‘local problem’ but a ‘global problem’ and combating it requires a concerted effort where the blame game doesn’t help much.

References:

German E. coli outbreak caused by previously unknown strain (Nature, June 2nd, 2011)

World health officials scramble to stem deadly E. coli outbreak (CNN, June 2nd, 2011)

EHEC outbreak: Rare strain of E. coli unknown in previous outbreaks (WHO, June 2nd, 2011)

Kumarasamy KK, Toleman MA, Walsh TR, Bagaria J, Butt F, Balakrishnan R, Chaudhary U, Doumith M, Giske CG, Irfan S, Krishnan P, Kumar AV, Maharjan S, Mushtaq S, Noorie T, Paterson DL, Pearson A, Perry C, Pike R, Rao B, Ray U, Sarma JB, Sharma M, Sheridan E, Thirunarayan MA, Turton J, Upadhyay S, Warner M, Welfare W, Livermore DM, & Woodford N (2010). Emergence of a new antibiotic resistance mechanism in India, Pakistan, and the UK: a molecular, biological, and epidemiological study. The Lancet infectious diseases, 10 (9), 597-602 PMID: 20705517

Poirel L, Hombrouck-Alet C, Freneaux C, Bernabeu S, & Nordmann P (2010). Global spread of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase 1. The Lancet infectious diseases, 10 (12) PMID: 21109172

Perception of Corruption

2011-05-29T10:07:00.000-07:00

During a recent dataset trawling expedition for a statistics project, I came across the aggregate indictor of corruption- the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). Transparency International (TI) defines corruption as ‘the abuse of entrusted power for private gain, whether it be in public or private sector’.

The 2010 CPI measures the public sector corruption perceived to exist in 178 nation states, scoring countries on a scale of 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very sale), using sources such as Asian Development Bank, World Bank, Economist Intelligence Unit, Freedom House, Global Insight, IMD, and World Economic Forum.

Only 26.40% of the countries ranked have an index score above 5; 62.93% have an index score below 4. The top 10 ranked countries are Denmark, New Zealand, Singapore, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Netherlands, Australia, Switzerland, and Norway. UK is ranked 20 (ranked 10th out of 30 EU countries), India is at 87 (also ranked 16th out of 33 Asia-Pacific countries), whilst Brazil is 69. The bottom-dwellers are Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Burundi, Chad, Sudan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Somalia. The perceived corruption of 9 countries improved (i.e. corruption was perceived to have decreased) from 2009 to 2010, which includes Bhutan, Haiti, and Qatar. Interestingly, those which deteriorated include Greece, Hungary, Italy, and the United States.

Corruption casts its shade on environmental matters as well, especially in public sector. Corrupt governmental officials might deliberate throw up complex bureaucratic bottlenecks unless appeased with green notes. In the case of illegal land encroachments, one often finds that high powers-that-be happily play along with this, for the simple reason that there is a new swimming pool in their backyard. It is not uncommon to see reroutement of funds too.

Whether the CPI is a fool-proof indicator remains debatable since the countries are ranked according to the perception of corruption; such qualitative methodologies (conducted via questionnaires on the public seeking their perception of an activity which usually happens under wraps) can suffer from many biases. For instance, the perceived definition of ‘corruption’ would vary in each country (and possibly, each different parts of the country); what might seem corrupt in one country, might be acceptable elsewhere! Comparing CPI indexes of the past (available since 1995) is of no benefit in identifying perceived change in the perceptions of corruption, since it is probable that the data over the years may not be comparable, given the wide range of changes (and/or errors) in sampling, methodology, measuring, and sources (as is in the case of CPI). What it does provide is a rough overview of how matters are perceived as: the reality might be less melodramatic... or harsher.

Image source: unknown photographer

Waste lands

2011-01-29T10:12:00.000-08:00

Modern cities generate huge amounts of rubbish, and disposing of this is one of the most pressing environmental problems. One can bury it of course, or burn it in incinerators, or just dump it in a big pile just outside the city. This is the approach chosen for the Jardim Gramacho in Rio, Brazil, one of the worlds largest rubbish dumps, which is the subject of the Oscar nominated film, Waste Land.*

Seventy percent of Rio's rubbish arrives at Jardim Gramacho, which is an astonishing 7,000 tons every day. In a rich country with few people, trash can be passed through automated factories which remove the most valuable materials for recycling. Brazil is a not-so-rich country with a lot of people, but recycling still takes place, on a massive scale. Thousands of scavengers ("catedores") clamber over the rubbish very day - an estimated 3,000 people, supporting 13,000 men women and children. About 200 tons of material is recycled daily, 50% plastic, 21% metal and 16% paper, though metal is preferred as the most vulnerable.

The catedores, incidentally, don't necessarily conform to the expected stereotype. A survey in 2004** found 90% could read and write, and 79% own their own homes. The catedores are also reported as feeling a certain amount of pride in their efforts, contrasting with other job options such as drug trafficking or prostitution.

Well so far so good, the system does generate meaningful employment and recycling is a good thing, but obviously there is a price.

In the 2004 survey, although 70% used gloves only 0.9 use masks. Over 20% reported "colds or flu" in the previous 6 months and 10% had respiratory problems, whilst 45% had had conjunctivitis at some time in their past. There is also the ever present risk of cuts from glass, falling objects and burns, as well as bites from the mosquitoes which thrive in the marshes nearby, with 23% having had dengue fever. Interestingly, only 13% of those interviewed actually regarded their work as responsible for these problems, as opposed to their life in general. They may have had a point. Collecting rubbish will never make you rich, only 50% in 2004 lived in homes connected to the sewage network and ironically, about a third have no rubbish collection at home and have to burn rubbish or dump it in local waterways.

One last point. Several cities such as Salvador and Recife, in northern Brazil, dump their rubbish near the airport, a text book example of an idea that "seemed a good idea at the time". After all nobody wants to live right next to a busy airport. Unfortunately, whilst people won't, vultures will. Black vultures are flourishing on the easily available food, and birds and planes do not mix. Bird strikes have more than doubled in Brazil in the past decade, and about half the cases involve vultures. Whilst a jet airliner might shrug off a hit from a sparrow, vultures are big weighing up to 2.5 kg and at least two two planes have been forced to make emergency landing after pilots were injured by vultures crashing into their windscreens. So far there have been no fatalities, but the potential is there and relocating or even killing the vultures has had limited success.

As Wagner Fischer, coordinator of the wildlife management department at IBAMA, the Brazilian federal environmental oversight agency, is quoted as saying***, “What if you have a bunch of house flies in your home?, is it better to kill or relocate the flies or clean your house?”

* The film incidentally follows artist Vik Muniz creating art from recycled materials, in collaboration with various catadores (hunters). It's a tribute to Muniz's talent that he has generated a very successful career from such unlikely material, including even the title sequence of the recent hugely popular Brazilian soap, Passione.

** Porto, M, Junca, D, Goncalves, R Filhote, M. (2004). Garbage, work, and health: a case study of garbage pickers at the metropolitan landfill in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Cad. Saúde Pública [online]. vol.20, n.6, pp. 1503-1514. ISSN 0102-311X. doi: 10.1590/S0102-311X2004000600007.
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0102-311X2004000600007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en

*** http://www.brazilmax.com/news.cfm/tborigem/tt_prstuff/id/2

Porto MF, Juncá DC, Gonçalves Rde S, & Filhote MI (2004). [Garbage, work, and health: a case study of garbage pickers at the metropolitan landfill in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil]. Cadernos de saude publica / Ministerio da Saude, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Escola Nacional de Saude Publica, 20 (6), 1503-14 PMID: 15608851

Formula 1’s new green cloak

2011-01-05T09:50:00.000-08:00

Formula 1’s (F1) foray into the carbon-reduction drives may not have exactly been a bombshell since it is in vogue to don a green cloak and hail this environmentally efficient attitude of reducing carbon footprint.

Trucost’s finds:
Trucost, an environmental consultancy, had conducted an exhaustive research on the full range of activities performed by and within F1 teams and their suppliers. Unsurprisingly, the carbon emissions arising from the testing and racing of F1 cars is only a small proportion (0.29%) of the total carbon chocked up by F1 as a whole (215,588 tonnes per annum in 2009, the majority being attributable to the production and supply of raw materials and parts at 50%, electricity consumption at 30%, as well as transport of team and equipment from race to race at 14%). Trucost’s environmental research analysis suggested measures to decrease carbon emissions- ergo, the Formula One Teams Association (FOTA, which comprises of all 12 current Formula One Teams) has commenced a comprehensive and externally audited carbon emissions reduction programme. It is anticipated (by Martin Whitmarch, Chairman of FOTA and Team Principal of Vodafone McLaren Mercedes) that F1 will have reduced its total carbon emissions by 12.4% compared with the 2009.

FOTA’s aims:
A small step, but some step nonetheless towards cutting the total carbon emissions of the sport. The ultimate stated aim is to address environmental problems and benefit mankind in the long run. This is to be achieved by developing new automotive technologies which may be, in time, introduced in consumer production cars. Consequently, from 2013, all entrants have to obey technical regulations, such as fitting the F1 cars with fuel efficient engines and powertrains. Furthermore, F1’s regulations will be revised to enhance and incentivise further reduction of fuel consumption and enhancement of fuel efficiency (apparently, the amount of fuel which can be used by each team could be restricted).

Therefore, the major sources of emissions reductions come from reduced electricity consumption (16.95%), reduced operational fuel use (17.92%), and reduced expenditure on parts and raw materials (20.25%).

Tips on reaching the chequered flag (apart from those stated by FOTA):

- As of yet, F1 held 19 races in 2010, around the world, and in no particular order- starting at Bahrain in March and ending at Abu Dhabi in November. As a result, there is a significant of zig-zagged travelling and carting of teams and equipment around the world, from race to race, by air, road, rail, and sea- not to overlook the devoted fans and spectators from around the world. So races could be conducted in a systematic manner, for instance, an itinerary which starts in Europe, then moves on to the Middle Eastern races at Abu Dhabi and Bahrain, and then the Asian races (Chinese, Malaysian, Singaporean, Japanese and Korean GP). Or a more austere option would be to conduct the races solely in one continent per annum.

- Decrease the number of teams.

- Alternatively, decrease the number of races.

- Imposing emissions cap on each team.

- Conducting a GP solely with green technology (this will also popularize such consumer cars).

- Use ethanol as fuel (examples being Australia’s V8 SuperCar series which uses 80% ethanol and Indy Racing which uses 100% ethanol). However, this opens a can of worms. Producing ethanol does require more energy input. Furthermore, there is an increased risk of deforestation (especially rainforests) so as to provide area for corn cultivation. If existing agricultural lands are utilised for biofuel cultivation, there could be an increase in food prices (and such affects the poor more detrimentally). A feasible solution is if biofuel is made from crop wastes or sourced by cultivation in wastelands.

- Use less(er) fuels. From my former days as an F1 fanatic, I seem to remember that teams were always keen on lesser fuel, for more fuel implies more weight, which implies slow(er) car, a veritable harakiri in a sport where every millisecond counts.

- The electricity used (also for lighting up the tracks) could be sourced from solar/wind/tidal- the former an excellent option in the Middle Eastern and Asian races.

- No more races held at night (I believe, this is the case at Singapore and Abu Dhabi).

- F1 is bound to consume a significant amount of water as well- therefore, rain water could be harvested for non-drinking purposes.

- Planting innumerable rows of trees around the F1 circuits- trees are, after all, carbon sinks.

- Creation of energy efficient and clean/green technologies (which could be translated to consumer cars), which also implies something akin to starting from scratch.

Force behind the force:
One of the drivers behind this step of FOTA is pressure from sponsors who are increasingly keen to be associated with a ‘green product’. So is it just green washing to smoothen ruffled feathers?

More likely is the possibility that this new green mantle is all thanks to new austerity measures, the consequence of the financial stress faced by F1 as a result of the recession.

My other two cents:
I would like to see how the earmarked 12.4% carbon emissions cut can be achieved.

Secondly, it does seem as if FOTA’s current plans/suggestions are targeting the measly 0.3% of emissions contributable to racing and testing of F1 cars. Shouldn’t the focus be placed on the remaining 99.7% of emissions and their sources?

Whilst teams such as Lotus and McLaren (the first to achieve a Carbon Trust certification for ‘achieving annual savings of more than 1500 tonnes of CO2 emissions) have whole-heartedly accepted the new rules, Ferrari’s disgruntled attitude towards the new cloak does make wonder whether this entire greening is a conscious change towards efficiency and environmental responsibility.

What also significantly irks me is that whilst F1 lays focus on carbon emissions, they are totally overlooking the pollutants, especially NOx and particulates (likely to be emitted from a myriad of sources, including F1 engines).

I wonder whether, as in a domino effect, F1’s new stance would inspire its fans to adopt an environmentally friendly outlook. And is it too much to hope that they wouldn’t be using petrol-based transportation to reach the race tracks? Hopefully, the future might be bright, but not be orange, but green.

Sources:

FOTA

Reuters

Image source: Pete Keen / Free Digital Photos.net

Quo vadis Sasthamkotta?

2011-01-05T07:01:00.000-08:00

The overexploited Sasthamkotta Lake, one of the 25 Ramsar sites in India, is now facing another lethal threat, all thanks to a new drinking water scheme, the Chavara-Panmana Water Supply Scheme, due to be commissioned on January 12th despite warnings by expert committee that the lake cannot bear up further abuse.

Ideally, the outflow from a water body should be limited to 60% of its inflow: as of yet, Sasthamcotta Lake’s outflow has exceeded 70% of its inflow (37.5 million litres per day is utilised to supply Kollam district + additional 12 million litres per day under the new scheme). The Water Resources Minister, however, maintains that this new water supply scheme will not affect the lake since there is sufficient water. Is the Ramsar Site heading towards its demise?

Political activism

2010-12-20T10:31:00.000-08:00

For those who may be interested, I've blogged about singer and political activist Bob Geldof's recent talk during the Hay Festival conducted in Trivandrum last month.

http://hayinkerala.blogspot.com/2010/12/day-2-bob-geldof-in-conversation-with.html

Sasthamkotta Lake and its struggle for existence

2010-10-06T02:16:00.000-07:00

Around 29 kms away from the city of Quilon/Kollam is Sasthamkotta Lake- the largest freshwater lake in Kerala which is, since November 2002, one among 25 sites in India designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. The lake has a surface area of 373 ha and an average depth of 6.53 m (the maximum depth being 15.2 m). Since no tributaries feed the lake, it is believed that its existence is owed to rainfall as well as the springs at the bottom of the lake which supposedly stem from the nearby Kallada river.

The lake, with its pH of 7.25, serves as a major drinking water source for the inhabitants of the Kollam district. And the large population of chaoborus larvae (glassworm)* is believed to consume bacteria in the lake, thus maintaining the water’s purity. The aquatic fauna includes Etroplus suratensis (Pearl Spot or ‘karimeen’) and catfish. It is also a favourite habitat of the Common Teal (Anas crecca). Of special importance are Puntius ticto punctatus (the critically endangered Ticto barb), Horabagrus brachysoma (the endangered sun catfish), and Parambassis thomassi (vulnerable), as reported by WWF. WWF’s report also states that lake lacks aquatic flora and has scarce phytoplanktons**- claims which cannot be generalised for botanists have collected flora such as Nymphea, Limnanthemum, Lemna, Elodea, and Hydrilla from the lake.

The lake has been in the limelight recently- its environmental quality has been deteriorating, and both its surface area and the water level has been decreasing (in May 2010, 24 hectares of the lake was parched). The reasons are:
- Encroachment/reclamation for agriculture (mainly paddy, plantain, and tapioca)
- Unauthorised sand mining, including clay and sand mining in the surrounding hillocks which serves as catchments
- Soil erosion on the banks (the acacia trees which were planted with the purpose of stopping erosion have also stayed true to their reputation as water depleters).
-Dumping of agricultural and domestic wastes
- Dumping of wastes by restaurants and butchers
- Dumping of domestic/municipality sewage via gutters
- Soaking of dry coconut palm fronds before weaving
- The usual norm of local residents bathing and washing clothes (also cattle) in the lake.
- Accumulated eroded material at the bottom of the lake.

There may be some solution after all. The local government drew up a master plan for protecting the lake, and July 2010 saw those who lived around the lake being given a notice banning them from taking baths, washing clothes, or dumping waste into the lake. The notice also forbids mining in the catchments. In September, Sasthamcotta Lake and its surrounding catchments areas were declared as protected. Quarrying, sand-mining, and other activities which pollute the lake have been banned for two months. A longer term ban would have been more appropriate- a two month ban cannot achieve anything substantial, if any.

Postscript:
Whilst researching this topic, it was evident that the primary source used by most reports/articles was the Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands filed in by WWF, which may have a degree of inaccuracy.

* The WWF report’s ‘cavaborus larvae’ is probably a typo (or an ignorant error). Nonetheless, there are now 122 google results for the same term associated with the lake.

** A lake with no plants, minimal phytoplankton, and many fish species? Shurely shome mishtake?

References:
Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands(RIS)
The Annotated Ramsar List: India
WWF on Sasthamkotta Lake

http://www.hindu.com/2010/09/11/stories/2010091153010500.htm
http://beta.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/article429986.ece
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/11-more-wetlands-in-Ramsar-list/articleshow/32390259.cms

Pesticide usage in Kerala’s agricultural sector

2010-09-17T01:30:00.000-07:00

Agriculture contributes 17.2% to Kerala’s economy (as of 2002-2003). Correspondingly, the sector requires a sizeable amount of pesticides (roughly 656.5 tonnes per annum), of which fungicides account for 73%.

These facts were highlighted in a paper by Indira Devi (‘Pesticides in agriculture – A boon or a curse? A case study of Kerala’) published in the Economic and Political Weekly. The study focused on farms of mango and banana (in Palakkad and Wayanad districts), pineapple (in Ernakulam and Idukki districts), bitter gourd (in Idukki and Kottayam districts), and amaranthus and okra (in Palakkad and Trivandrum districts), and stated that 56% of mango farmers and 86% of banana farmers use chemical pesticides.

Even if there is an overall decrease in pesticide usage, the currently favoured and indiscriminately used pesticides are those that are potent in small doses, and relationally, more toxic. These include:
- PAN bad actor chemicals such as carbendazim, diuron, mancozeb, and paraquat (which are banned elsewhere for their highly toxic effects ranging from groundwater pollution to carcinogenic and teratogenic properties)
- Lindane, the highly toxic restricted-use pesticide, the usage of which has been increasing over the years (apparently with an annual compound growth rate of 107.54%)
- Cypermethrin, fenvalerate, and neem-based pesticides (which have an increase of 21-30%).
- The carcinogenic Methyl parathion (with an increase of 16.83%)
- Chloripyriphos (an increased usage of 7.5 %).
- The highly toxic Methoxyl ethyl mercury chloride.
- The banned Endosulphan (allegedly used in some mango plantations in Palakkad)
- The arsenic and phosophorus containing Calcium carbide (the effects of which ranges from digestive disorders to stroke and hypoxia), which is usually used as a ripening agent.

The chemical sprayings for mango comprises of various fractions/mixtures of carbaryl, cyperrmethrine, endosulfan, malathion, mercaptothion, planofix, profenofos, sevin, and sulphur. The number of pesticides used by farmers averages around 14 for banana, 15 for bitter gourd, and 11 for okra and amaranthus. Unsurprisingly, market surveys have revealed high levels of residual pesticide in vegetables and fruits grown in Kerala.

It is quite likely that the farmers who use these pesticides are ignorant of the injurious health effects posed by these chemicals, not just to the consumers but also to themselves. As far as they are concerned, they are using potent pesticides which are much more effective in accomplishing its purpose than the recommended and safer options. Perhaps they are in the same boat as most of us who seldom think before choosing cosmetic products.

Addendum: Plastiki

2010-09-16T21:57:00.000-07:00

Plastiki’s epic voyage, which commenced on March 20th at San Francisco, concluded at Sydney Harbour on 26th July 2010. As mentioned in my post, the journey has highlighted the plastic problem (as exemplified by the Great Pacific Garbage Patch) and the increasing pollution of the ocean.

Effect of climate change on human morbidity and mortality and sea levels

2010-08-26T23:55:00.000-07:00

Climate change has been resulting in quite a many detrimental manifestations which tend to have a domino effect: fluctuations in temperature and precipitation (resulting in climate variability), as well as extreme manifestations such as drought, storms, rise in sea levels, and frequent severe weather events.

Consider the research by Grinsted et al (2009) who used a ‘physically plausible four parameter linear response equation’ to relate nearly 2,000 years of global temperatures and sea level. Assuming that this relationship holds from 200 to 2100 AD, IPCC’s temperature scenarios and reconstructed past sea level scenarios were used to visualise future sea level scenarios. The result suggests that climate change will lead to a 0.9-1.3 m change in sea level between 2090-2099. This bodes a certain flooding of low lying coastal regions and islands. Island countries such as Maldives would practically cease to exist. Whilst countries such as Bangladesh may not face such obliteration, such a sea level rise would flood 1/3rd of the country, displacing millions of humans and severely affecting agriculture, irrigation, and livestock.

Climate change also has a perceptible impact on human morbidity and mortality (Patz et al, 2005). Climate fluctuations have been linked to diseases and ailments- the evident effects of heat/cold (which, for instance, follows a U-shaped dose-response function with increased mortality in the extreme heat and cold), traumatic physical and mental ailments, and even cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. This even results in altered transmission of infectious diseases (for instance, changes in temperature has been associated with salmonellosis in Europe and cholera in the ‘American south-west’; whilst, changes in rainfall has been associated with Rift valley fever in East Africa, and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and cholera in the American south-west and Bangladesh). When one factors in the effects of climate change on air pollution and the greater ecosystem, the result is quite chaotic. If the future projections of climate change are plausible, then it is likely that these health risks may rise significantly. The ‘potentially vulnerable’ regions includes the temperate latitudes (which may warm disproportionately), and the regions in and around the Pacific and Indian oceans (substantial rainfall variability).

But even though the economic North/developed countries are responsible for most of the greenhouse gas emissions, the damaging effects of their actions are most perceived in the poor countries of the South which has (as of yet) contributed least towards the GHG emissions.

References:
Patz, J., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Holloway, T., & Foley, J. (2005). Impact of regional climate change on human health Nature, 438 (7066), 310-317 DOI: 10.1038/nature04188

Grinsted, A., Moore, J., & Jevrejeva, S. (2009). Reconstructing sea level from paleo and projected temperatures 200 to 2100 ad Climate Dynamics, 34 (4), 461-472 DOI: 10.1007/s00382-008-0507-2

Where did the oil go?

2010-08-19T07:04:00.000-07:00

The recent oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico released, as we have all seen on tv, a lot of oil. Quite how much is a "lot" is a bit of a guess, but roughly 4.9 million barrels, or 784 million litres*. What actually happened to this oil was reviewed recently in an article in Science (Kerr 2010). Only about 0.1% was recovered from beaches and marshes (that´s still an awful lot of oil!). About 17% was siphoned away at the well head, 5% burned off at the surface, and only 3% skimmed off by booms, despite a lot of effort and money spent. And the other 75%? It's, er, disappeared.

So where did this oil go? Some evaporated, but with luck most of it was eaten.

Oil is energy, that's why we use it in our cars and power stations. And energy means food. There are actually quite a few bacteria that digest and breakdown crude oil, and these are massively important in the recovery of the ocean from disasters like this. They work as a consortium, each concentrating on a particular fraction of the oil, and as one hydrocarbon is degraded to another, other bacteria take over. The first, and so in many ways the most important, are Alcanivorax species (Vila et al 2010). These are found in tiny quantities in unpolluted waters, but their numbers rocket when in the presence of linear and branched alkanes, common in crude oil. In fact they are so specialised for this type of hydrocarbon that without long chain alkenes they grow very poorly, but by then their job is done. Now other species such as Roseovarius and Marinobacter take over.

This breakdown was helped by the massive release of chemical dispersants at the oil head, 1.1 million gallons (Kintisch 2010). These are similar to the detergent in your kitchen, breaking down lumps of oil into tiny droplets, which are "dispersed" and can be attacked much more efficiently by bacteria. This was very controversial, as dispersants are pretty toxic and an immense quantity was involved. Still, it seemed to work, and much of the oil was broken down into 1-10 micrometer droplets. In fact, it started to raise fears that it was working TOO well, a microbial explosion depriving the ocean floor of oxygen and creating a huge dead zone. But this seems not to have happened, and in fact so far the prognosis is good.

We´re not out of the woods yet, the oil could yet turn up in unwanted places, and chemical damage by detergents might yet, for instance, devastate the local tuna population. But there have been lessons learnt for next time - and there will be a next time.

Kerr RA (2010). Gulf Oil Spill. A lot of oil on the loose, not so much to be found. Science (New York, N.Y.), 329 (5993), 734-5 PMID: 20705818
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;329/5993/734?maxtoshow=&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=oil+biodegradation&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=date&resourcetype=HWCIT

Kintisch E (2010). Gulf Oil Spill. An audacious decision in crisis gets cautious praise. Science (New York, N.Y.), 329 (5993), 735-6 PMID: 20705819
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/329/5993/735

Vila, J., Nieto, J., Mertens, J., Springael, D., & Grifoll, M. (2010). Microbial community structure of a heavy fuel oil-degrading marine consortium: linking microbial dynamics with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon utilization FEMS Microbiology Ecology DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.00902.x

* the oil "barrel" is actually based on a type of old English wine barrel or "teirce" holding 35 gallons.

Lead: Part 1

2010-08-04T08:23:00.000-07:00

Having highlighted a recent paper on the presence of Lead in game, I have decided to commence a series of specialised ‘limelights’ on the effects of Lead bullets/pellets in humans as a result of game hunting. However, before I address my assignment, I shall first provide a succinct background on Lead’s toxicity.

Inception
For thousands of years, Lead has been widely extracted and used by mankind, mainly due to the availability of its many ores as well as its malleability. In fact, Lead used to be the second most used metal (after Iron).

Lead’s toxicity
Despite its many benefits, Lead’s detrimental effects of morbidity and mortality in humans and animals have been demonstrated by numerous studies. These vary from mild manifestations (such as fatigue, emotional irritability, and insomnia) to the fatal conclusion of death. Published studies have established the following:
- reduced somatic growth (Hauser et al, 2008)
- impaired motor function (Cecil et al, 2008)
- decreased brain volume (Cecil et al, 2008)
- permanent cognitive damage, attention and behavioural dysfunction/problems, impaired cognitive function (Needleman et al, 2002; Canfield et al, 2003; Lanphear et al, 2005; Braun et al, 2006; Schnaas et al, 2006; Cecil et al, 2008; Jusko et al, 2008; Wright et al, 2008)
- reproductive damage, including spontaneous abortion (Borja-Aburto et al, 1999)
- nephropathy (Ekong et al, 2006)
- cancer and cardiovascular disease (Lustberg and Silbergeld, 2002; Menke et al, 2006)
- and even criminal behavior (Needleman et al, 2002; Wright et al, 2008).

A great danger of Lead toxicity is that the symptoms may lag physiological changes, i.e. the affected individual may remain unaware of the danger (similar to the effect of cholesterol). Lead in the blood does not excrete and a major proportion sequesters in soft tissues and bone from where it may be switched on especially during pregnancy (Tellez-Rojo et al, 2004) or old age (Schwartz and Stewart, 2007).

Over the past 50 years, as a result of new studies revealing the toxic effects of Lead at lower levels, the benchmark levels have declined (60 μg/dL in 1960; 25 μg/dL in 1985; and, 10 μg/dL in 1991) (Needleman, 2004). And although the current CDC benchmark level is 10 μg/dL, the published studies indicate that it would be inane to consider even a trifling level of Lead exposure as being harmless (Bellinger and Bellinger, 2006)- for instance, Lanphear et al (2005) has associated maximal blood Lead levels lower than 7.5 μg/dL with permanent cognitive damage and intellectual deficits in children, whilst Menke et al (2006) associated 2 µg/dL as having increased risk of cardiovascular mortality in adults.

Foetuses, children, and pregnant women face the greatest risk (Schnaas et al, 2006; Iqbal et al, 2009).

References:

Borja-Aburto VH, Hertz-Picciotto I, Rojas Lopez M, Farias P, Rios C, & Blanco J (1999). Blood lead levels measured prospectively and risk of spontaneous abortion. American journal of epidemiology, 150 (6), 590-7 PMID: 10489998

Lustberg, M. (2002). Blood Lead Levels and Mortality Archives of Internal Medicine, 162 (21), 2443-2449 DOI: 10.1001/archinte.162.21.2443

Needleman HL, McFarland C, Ness RB, Fienberg SE, & Tobin MJ (2002). Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. A case control study. Neurotoxicology and teratology, 24 (6), 711-7 PMID: 12460653

Canfield, R., Henderson, C., Cory-Slechta, D., Cox, C., Jusko, T., & Lanphear, B. (2003). Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations below 10 μg per Deciliter New England Journal of Medicine, 348 (16), 1517-1526 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa022848

Needleman, H (2004). Lead poisoning Ann. Rev. Med (55), 209-222

Téllez-Rojo MM, Hernández-Avila M, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, Smith D, Hernández-Cadena L, Mercado A, Aro A, Schwartz J, & Hu H (2004). Impact of bone lead and bone resorption on plasma and whole blood lead levels during pregnancy. American journal of epidemiology, 160 (7), 668-78 PMID: 15383411

Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, Canfield RL, Dietrich KN, Bornschein R, Greene T, Rothenberg SJ, Needleman HL, Schnaas L, Wasserman G, Graziano J, & Roberts R (2005). Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environmental health perspectives, 113 (7), 894-9 PMID: 16002379

Bellinger DC, & Bellinger AM (2006). Childhood lead poisoning: the torturous path from science to policy. The Journal of clinical investigation, 116 (4), 853-7 PMID: 16585952

Braun JM, Kahn RS, Froehlich T, Auinger P, & Lanphear BP (2006). Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in U.S. children. Environmental health perspectives, 114 (12), 1904-9 PMID: 17185283

Ekong EB, Jaar BG, & Weaver VM (2006). Lead-related nephrotoxicity: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Kidney international, 70 (12), 2074-84 PMID: 17063179

Menke, A. (2006). Blood Lead Below 0.48 mol/L (10 g/dL) and Mortality Among US Adults Circulation, 114 (13), 1388-1394 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.106.628321

Schnaas, L., Rothenberg, S., Flores, M., Martinez, S., Hernandez, C., Osorio, E., Velasco, S., & Perroni, E. (2005). Reduced Intellectual Development in Children with Prenatal Lead Exposure Environmental Health Perspectives, 114 (5), 791-797 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8552

Schwartz, B., & Stewart, W. (2007). Lead and cognitive function in adults: A questions and answers approach to a review of the evidence for cause, treatment, and prevention International Review of Psychiatry, 19 (6), 671-692 DOI: 10.1080/09540260701797936

Cecil KM, Brubaker CJ, Adler CM, Dietrich KN, Altaye M, Egelhoff JC, Wessel S, Elangovan I, Hornung R, Jarvis K, & Lanphear BP (2008). Decreased brain volume in adults with childhood lead exposure. PLoS medicine, 5 (5) PMID: 18507499

Hauser, R., Sergeyev, O., Korrick, S., Lee, M., Revich, B., Gitin, E., Burns, J., & Williams, P. (2008). Association of Blood Lead Levels with Onset of Puberty in Russian Boys Environmental Health Perspectives, 116 (7), 976-980 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.10516

Jusko TA, Henderson CR, Lanphear BP, Cory-Slechta DA, Parsons PJ, & Canfield RL (2008). Blood lead concentrations Environmental health perspectives, 116 (2), 243-8 PMID: 18288325

Wright JP, Dietrich KN, Ris MD, Hornung RW, Wessel SD, Lanphear BP, Ho M, & Rae MN (2008). Association of prenatal and childhood blood lead concentrations with criminal arrests in early adulthood. PLoS medicine, 5 (5) PMID: 18507497

Iqbal S, Blumenthal W, Kennedy C, Yip FY, Pickard S, Flanders WD, Loringer K, Kruger K, Caldwell KL, & Jean Brown M (2009). Hunting with lead: association between blood lead levels and wild game consumption. Environmental research, 109 (8), 952-9 PMID: 19747676

On top of the World!

2010-06-26T14:33:00.000-07:00

The attention of the world is focused, at time of writing, on 32 countries. Not necessarily those most powerful (though some are included) or the most disruptive (though one or two are there too). These are the footballing powers of the world, from Brazil to Honduras. I thought it might be fun to pit them against each other in an environmental context as well.

In January 2010 the Yale Centre of Environmental law and policy prepared a report for the World Economic Policy forum in Geneva. (http://epi.yale.edu/) They used a whole raft of factors, from air and water pollution to polices on climate change and biodiversity (if they were actually implemented - see Greece below).

So, cut to the chase, who won?? Well, the overall winner was Iceland, but I'm excluding them since a) they aren't at the World Cup Finals, and b) their volcanoes disrupted the skies of most of Europe! So, step forward.....

Switzerland! Second place overall. And they beat Spain! Despite not making the 2nd round its still a good time to be Swiss.

One would expect wealthy countries to top the list, as they can afford the necessary infrastructure, and indeed the 2nd place goes to France (7th officially), England/ UK are 4th (14th) and Germany 7th (17th), but actually commitment and good governance are even more important. Yale place Costa Rica an excellent 2nd and Slovakia make 3rd place in our table (13) despite inheriting an aging and polluting heavy industry from the Soviet era. Chile are 6th (16th), and the South American leaders.

So who are the bad boys? Bottom of the pack is Nigeria, in a large part due to problems with the oil industry there. Nigeria is home to the Niger valley, the largest wetland in Africa, but plagued with oil spills due to very poorly maintained equipment. These devastate local ecosystems, and eventually fisheries, combined with poor environmental policies and over fishing. Another problem is the flaring of natural gas associated with oil drilling - equivalent to 25% of the UK's gas usage in 2001, or 40% of Africa's. Of course this releases massive amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere,as well as damaging local heath from air pollution.
Second to last are North Korea, though to be fair to Nigeria, information from this closed state is notoriously unreliable and their rating rather a guess.

The worst performer in Latin America was Honduras, with Uruguay slightly in front. Honduras has had some well publicised political problems and coups, as well as being one of the poorest countries in Latin America, and thus the major environmental problem, deforestation, has had little priority. One of the major problems in Uruguay is pollution of their river estuaries. This has led to bitter disputes with Argentina, which shares a common border on the river Uruguay, especially over the building of new paper mills which discharge pulp into the river.

Worst scoring in our list for Europe, and 71st in the official list, was Greece. Deforestation has not helped, but their low score is mainly due to failure to implement obligations from their signature of the Kyoto treaty. Given their financial impecunity due to a not-totally-dissimilar failure to implement obligations over Euro membership, it is hard to see how things will improve in the short term.

But let's end on a good note. Switzerland for the Cup!!

Plastiki: The vessel of awareness

2010-06-17T07:39:00.000-07:00

For the past few months, I’ve been following the progress of Plastiki, and given the extent of media coverage (especially CNN), it is likely that my readers too may have read about it. For those that haven’t, read on….

Providing an image/diagram is a good technique of deepening understanding of a concept; providing a demonstration would complete the picture. And this is exactly what Plastiki does.

The unique Plastiki
Plastiki is the innovative result of the impact which UNEP’s report, on ‘Ecosystems and Biodiversity in Deep Waters and High Seas’ (which presented the threats faced by marine biodiversity due to pollution, particularly by plastic wastes), had on eco-adventurer David de Rothschild. After months and years of brainstorming, Plastiki emerged - the 60 ft/18 m catamaran with a difference- manufactured mainly with solar energy and composed of 12500 reclaimed plastic bottles (about the same number of plastic bottles consumed every 8.3 seconds in the US) filled with CO2 to make her solid and consistent (and the bottles provide 68% of the buoyancy); structure made out of easily recyclable self-reinforced polyethylene terephthalate (srPET) called Seretex; sails made out of recycled PET; and recycled waste products. The catamaran is self-sustaining, using renewable energy systems (solar panels, wind and sea turbines, and a biodiesel engine to be used only in emergencies), and a vacuum water evaporator (for desalination). A bicycle generator, the ‘Human Dynamo bike’, provides exercise for the crew and also provides energy for the boat’s electrical systems.

The journey and aims
After setting off from San Francisco on March 20th, 2010, the six-man crew (including expedition leader de Rothschild) have explored many ecologically/environmentally important sites in the Pacific Ocean so as to provide more awareness on issues such as global warming and sea level rise (which poses a terrible threat to island nations), ocean acidification and damaged coral reefs, and marine pollution (especially by plastics). As of June 17th, they are south of Tuvalu and are en route for the final and most challenging leg towards Sidney, where the approximately 11,000-nautical mile expedition will conclude. So far, they have travelled for 90 days/2160 hours and 5785 nautical miles (and Plastiki helpfully adds that during this duration, 5400 million plastic bottles were used in the US alone!).

Plastiki’s mission is to raise awareness of environmental issues and the damage caused by ‘one-use culture’, and to enthuse individuals, communities, and businesses to find solutions to use waste as a valuable resource. Plastiki herself is an excellent example of how the discarded plastic bottles (usually meant to be a single use item, which we all use, and perhaps discard, everyday) can be utilised efficiently.

The plastic menace
Plastic is a huge menace (you may refer to my short summary on plastics and my longer essay on the effect of plastics in marine fauna in Our Gossamer Planet) since most are not biodegradable and takes a long time to degrade. Even then, these disintegrated minute pieces of plastic cause problems, most notably by leaching chemicals into the environment. It is estimated that out of approximately 100 million tonnes of plastic produced per annum, 10% ends up in the oceans- hardly surprising since 60-80% of total marine pollution is due to plastics (the UN had estimated that every square mile of the world’s ocean has approximately 46,000 minute floating pieces of plastic). But, the devastating effects of plastics in the ocean are no different from what happens on land: hundreds of thousands of marine fauna (including fishes, birds, turtles, and mammals) tends to mistakenly ingest these or gets entangled, resulting in death or poisoning. This, in turn, affects the biodiversity and the entire system.

Plastiki’s insights
Plastiki has also shed more light on the ‘garbage patch’, a subsurface sea of waste with mass of 3 ½ tonnes and about five times the size of the UK, floating in the North Pacific gyre between California and Hawaii. de Rothschild related of how Plastiki’s hull was covered with a fine, extra layer of plastic fragments. But more interestingly, the crew states that they have seen more plastic than fish during their journey so far, having caught three fishes and haven’t seen any sharks- a far cry from the Kon-Tiki expedition of Thor Heyerdahl, 40 years ago, when the crew caught fresh fish every day and could not enter the water fearing sharks.

Plastiki’s website is definitely worth visiting- with lots of interesting facts, photos, blogs, and videos, apart from live tracking and up-to-date information. MyPlastiki also allows visitors to make a pledge to better our oceans and planet by not using plastic bottles, bags, and styrene foams. The number of pledges, however, is quite disappointing - plastic bottles (1698 pledges), plastic bags (1589 pledges), styrene foams (1413 pledges), and all three (1143 pledges).

What we can do
But may be there is no need to be disappointed- each individual’s wholehearted actions can make a great effect, more so if the same is communicated to their peers and communities. Humans can exist by reducing or replacing (with ecofriendly alternatives) their usage of plastic bottles, plastic bags, and styrene foams (particularly the single use disposable types). One good method for an ecofriendly living is to follow the 4Rs- Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Rethink, and ultimately 2Rs- Replace and Refuse.

Paper of the Week : A Whale of the waste matter

2010-06-16T05:47:00.000-07:00

The way by which living organisms in our planet are intricately connected is beautiful beyond comprehension. Like pieces in a puzzle they all fit together with the activities of each organism however trivial it may appear to be, affecting the existance of others. We will never fully understand this marvel, but a noteworthy example is the elegant finding by Lavery et al published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society (Biological Sciences)- Iron defecation by sperm whales stimulates carbon export in the Southern Ocean
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/06/14/rspb.2010.0863.full

The authors provide compelling evidence on the role that sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in the Southern ocean play in promoting nutrient cycling and their function as carbon sinks. Lavery et al show that the whales consume prey at the depths of the ocean but expel the waste about 50 tonnes of iron iron-rich liquid buoyant faecal matter each year into the photic zone near ocean surface. The researchers estimate that if three quarters of this iron persisted there, 36 tonnes of iron to the photic zone per year are contributed by the activities of the Southern Ocean sperm whale alone. Iron is a nutrient essential for the growth of phytoplanton which live in the photic zone. Consequentially, iron enrichment causes phytoplankton blooms resulting in carbon export during photosythesis. Additionally, phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton. The zooplankton are consumed by squids that form the food of the whales, thereby creating a positive feedback loop. Thus this toilette behaviour of the whale benefits it as well! The researchers estimate that sperm whales stimulated the export of 4 × 105 tonnes of carbon per year to the deep ocean whilst respiring 2 × 105 tonnes of carbon per year thereby mopping up carbon. This paper also highlights the issue as to how industrial whaling leading to large scale depletion of sperm whales might have impeded the ability of the Southern Ocean to act as a carbon sink.

Lavery, T., Roudnew, B., Gill, P., Seymour, J., Seuront, L., Johnson, G., Mitchell, J., & Smetacek, V. (2010). Iron defecation by sperm whales stimulates carbon export in the Southern Ocean Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0863

Paper of the Week: Beware the Lead

2010-05-29T10:27:00.000-07:00

Staunch supporters of game will find little to be pleased with the research published by Deborah Pain (of Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Gloucestershire) and colleagues, on Potential Hazard to Human Health from Exposure to Fragments of Lead Bullets and Shot in the Tissues of Game Animals in PLoS. The findings would also shock those who happily dig into the cooked game, seldom pondering about how much lead is ingested in the process.

Lead ammunition (pellets/bullets) is often used to shoot down game. To solve their research question, Pain and her colleagues bought wild-shot game birds (grouse, mallard, partridge, pheasant, pigeon, and woodcock) from supermarkets, game dealers, shoots, and butchers. After X-raying these to determine the number of shot and shot fragments present, these were cooked using typical recipes (in wine or cider or pH-neutral cream sauce). Mimicking the traditional game eating behaviour, the visible lead fragments were manually removed.

The lead concentrations in the remaining flesh were analysed. The results demonstrated that the game tissue is littered with small pieces of shot- most likely due to the ammunition disintegrating into smaller particles upon impact (and, in some cases, these fragments embed into the tissues even though the shot exits the body). Consequently, a higher level of consumption of some species may result in exceeding the current FAO/WHO’s weekly tolerable intake of lead. For instance, weekly consumption of three meals of woodcock and/or ten meals of grouse / partridge / pheasant would certainly take a 70 kilogram person over this threshold.

So does the consumption of game birds (shot with lead) pose a threat to humans? – The answer is very much an ‘yes’ although this depends on the amount of game consumed. As in most studies, the vulnerable population stands a good risk. And one mustn’t overlook the impact on the food chains/webs- fauna which consume these shot game birds are inevitably affected as well.

Pain DJ, Cromie RL, Newth J, Brown MJ, Crutcher E, Hardman P, Hurst L, Mateo R, Meharg AA, Moran AC, Raab A, Taggart MA, & Green RE (2010). Potential hazard to human health from exposure to fragments of lead bullets and shot in the tissues of game animals. PloS one, 5 (4) PMID: 20436670

Restoration

2010-05-15T12:23:00.000-07:00

As was pointed out graphically by Sarah in her blog Our Gossamer Planet the forests of the world are disappearing at an alarming rate. The highest proportional rate of forest loss is in the United States, with a huge 6% loss of their trees from 2000 to 2005. However, the greatest total loss was in Brazil, a massive 165,000 sq. km.

Many people around the world are interested in rehabilitation of tropical forest, but despite this there is no real agreement on the best way to go about it. To look at some of the nitty gritty involved here is one detailed study that illustrates the problems (Jose Camargo et al, 2002, Rehabilitation of Degraded Areas of Central Amazonia Using Direct Sowing of Forest Tree Seeds, Restoration Ecology, 10, 636-644).

How does one make a forest?

The usual method in forestry is to plant seedlings, and this has been tried in forest reclamation, but it is expensive and time consuming, and not practical for large areas. Cheaper and easier would be use to use seeds, and they are also less susceptible to injury during planting by unskilled hands, but would they germinate? Part of the problem is the poor quality of the soil, made worse by poor agriculture. Also, which species? If you just want something growing there, one of the most successful on abandoned ex-forest land is Eucalyptus, but it is hardly a native flora. Renovating a temperate oak forest is relatively simple, just plant lots of oak (well ok, it´s a bit more than that), but the Amazon forest is characterised by an extreme diversity of plants, all in intense competition for very limited resources. Which to use?

Camargo and his team chose 11 native species, ranging from pioneer species to those of more established forest. This in itself is a problem, as the very number of Amazon trees means that most are not characterised yet. Also, some are dormant until they receive the right stimulus such as hot water or perforation.

They then chose four sites, intact forest, with trees about 20-30m tall, secondary forest dominated by shrubs and saplings of pioneer trees, up to 5m tall, abandoned pasture consisting of grasses and herbs, and, most hostile of all, bare earth from a highway project, compacted and stripped of top soil.

So, what happened?

After one year only one, the Piquia (Caryocar villosum), survived on all sites. The problems of a seed begin as soon as it hits the ground. Seed predation was high and seedlings suffered from fungi, predation and low light in the shade (germination was much higher on bare earth). Of the pioneer species, not one seedling was alive at any site after one year.

Caryocar villosum is a very large tree, 40-50 m tall. One reason for the success of the Piquia was it´s hard spiny shell defeating predation, whilst others suffered heavily. It also grew spectacularly fast, reaching 100 cm after just a year in some conditions, allowing it to escape shade very quickly.

The 2nd success was Parkia multijuga. P. multijuga has the advantage that it is a member of the legume family like peas and beans, and so, in effect, makes it´s own fertiliser. It´s therefore much less reliant than other trees on finding symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi in the soil, and in fact it actually renovates poor soil, adding nitrogen.

One of the surprises of this study was the failure of the pioneer species. These are plants that rely on producing huge numbers of very small seeds that drift on the wind, which spreads them over a huge area. This means that when new habitats become available they will usually be there ready, a big advantage. It might be expected therefore that these are exactly the trees to chose when starting a new forest. In contrast, it was those trees that produce huge seeds that more or less drop straight down and rely on animals to move them a little way from the truck, that survived. Why? Well the main benefits of the small seed/pioneer strategy are increased dispersal range and access to new germination sites, both of which are negated by direct planting. But also, the sheer hostility of the environment was unexpected. Large seeds are not a guarantee of success, as other studies have shown, but they do give the potential to grow fast escaping the shade of your rivals, and also the spare capacity to produce toxins, important when there are so many herbivores about. In the Amazon, any sort of ground cover harbours massive numbers of insects that chop up seedlings, one reason why germination was more successful on the bare, safe, earth.

In the end, out of 11 species tested, the authors could only recommend Caryocar villosum and Parkia multijuga for rehabilitation work, both non-pioneers with very large seeds. This is a still a big step forward, and gives a place to start.

There will be, hopefully, a lot of reforestation in the future. What this paper, and others like it, show is that it has to be done only after careful study, or a lot of effort will be wasted. There is a price to pay for the convenience and saving from avoiding nurseries and planting direct, and that price is paid by the plants. Without the care and protection of a nursery, life is very risky for seedlings.

Lastly, the long term future of any "new" forest has to be considered. For example the timber of Piquia is know to be excellent, and is used for housing and boats in the Amazon region. A forest mainly consisting of Piquia would be very tempting to loggers in the future.

Camargo, J., Ferraz, I., & Imakawa, A. (2002). Rehabilitation of Degraded Areas of Central Amazonia Using Direct Sowing of Forest Tree Seeds Restoration Ecology, 10 (4), 636-644 DOI: 10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.01044.x

Red, Blue, Yellow & Green

2010-05-07T09:51:00.000-07:00

Today, the nation woke up to a shift from Red to Blue. However, with no clear majority, which party is going to form the new government is anyone’s guess. Media accounts suggest that the Blues might coalesce with the Yellows. But what does the election mean for green issues. ‘Hopeful’ is the best word to sum it. The green party now has representation in the parliament. The voters of Brighton made history by electing Caroline Lucas to represent them as the first Green party MP. But will her voice be solitary in the parliament floor? One hopes not, in fact Richmond Park elected the Conservative party candidate Zac Goldsmith who could also fly the flag for green issues. Zac has strong green testimonials as the founder of the Ecologist magazine, advisor for Tories on environmental issues and a supporter of many green issues including his opposition to the third runway in Heathrow. Things are indeed looking bright and green!

Nature and Nurture: For the Future

2010-05-01T05:22:00.000-07:00

The least movement is of importance to all nature. The entire ocean is affected by a pebble.- Blaise Pascal

My original question was: ‘How can parents mold the environmentally responsible citizens of tomorrow?’, which was succeeded by discussions on Pets and on Like a Garden.

Now, this was not just a random query, but one of importance. These future citizens of tomorrow are those who, with their choices and attitudes, sculpt the earth of tomorrow regardless of whether or not they occupy key role in political governance. Thus, parents have crucial role to play, given the great degree of responsibility lying in these hands.

It would be inane to doggedly insist that mankind has not contributed to environmental degradation. The question which faces us now is about what can be done to rectify this degradation which mostly happened as a result of the race towards development. Whilst it might be hard to attain the state of the environment (before it was sullied), we can still, with proactive participation by each individual, prevent further deterioration, and if possible, try to restore some of what has been lost. This individual participation is decisive- very much like the general elections in your country. Each citizen is faced with two options- either to stay at home and choose not to vote for a myriad of reasons (usually it’s along the lines of ‘my vote doesn’t matter’) Or to participate in this and make their voices heard. That one little splash may generate a ripple which can have far reaching effects.

I would like to conclude this series, on Nature and Nurture, by enumerating a few more activities which would not only instill an awareness of nature and environmental issues, but also create a supportive attitude. None of these activities are restricted to your home- the same can be practiced at your school, university, workplace, or clubs.

a. The idiot box, that spring of all temptation and lethargy, is the unlikely hero, being the source of nature and wildlife channels such as Animal Planet, Discovery, and National Geographic, all of which air informative programmes on an array of areas pertaining to nature and the environment. Apart from broadening your horizons, these can provide a visual glimpse into the vast world beyond the confines of our cities and districts. And should one intend to pursue a career in the life and physical sciences, this early training would be useful.
Whilst it was only in 1996 that we subscribed to satellite TV and its extensive assortment of channels, our childhood featured us watching David Attenborough’s programmes and other wildlife documentaries, which have, doubtless, left a great mark upon us.

b. By opting for green technologies and energy supplies (including solar), one does more than doing their little bit for the environment. Another tip would be to make the maximum utilisation of natural sunlight – why switch on the lamps during daytime when the sun is much more luminous?

c. Recycling (as well as reducing unnecessary wastage) and Reusing could be encouraged. Furthermore, purchasing recycled materials, such as stationery, helps these green innovators and can also encourage the need to prevent harm to the environment. It is possible that you may already have such green initiatives in your town. If not, why not start these and encourage others to participate as well?

d. Reducing the amount of plastics used in the household. Also, a good shopping bag can easily accommodate all the groceries and reduce the usage of plastic bags which are so freely distributed by the retailers.

e. Instead of juicy gossips dominating the living room tête-à-tête, one could stimulate a fruitful and illuminating discussion by referring to environmental issues or discussing such recent reports.

f. A plethora of magazines are published the field of nature and the environment. For the novice, there are Birds and Bloom, Scientific American, and National Geographic. For the curious, New Scientist, Nature, and Science. For the professional, just too many to list down here. Reading these and adding these in your library or in the foyer can result in some amount of eye-opening!

g. Schools, universities, and workplaces have in-house magazines which certainly will be read by the current students/employees, the alumni, and (potentially) their family members. By publishing articles in these magazines, you will be reaching a wider audience. Encouraging the children to participate in such activities at their school will reap benefits as well.

h. And here’s one of my favourite activities: one often gets invited to birthday parties and many other occasions which requires celebrations. Why not give a plant (or some seeds) as a gift? Alternatively, you could gift them with a membership to a nature/environment organisation!

i. And why take the car when you can easily walk to a site/work/school? Good for health and good for the environment!

j. There are numerous other possibilities, but these require some degree of leaving the comfortable confines of your home and enjoying nature where it can be enjoyed best- the outdoors.
The possibilities are numerous: a visit to the zoo, weekend exploration of the countryside and nearby forests, ecotourism options, just to state a few. Furthermore, all of these can be garnished with hiking, biking, and (for the more adventurous) camping! And for those with tight purse-strings, these activities are all very affordable. After all, nature doesn’t come with a price tag.

I am very certain that I have overlooked other points relating to Nature and Nurture. If the readers have such suggestions, I will be very grateful if you could list them via the comments. I shall, then, incorporate these into another post. But WWF-India and AboutmyPlanet.com have a great list of tips for those who are interested in getting more tips on how to be green.

Parents tend to be the role-models of the children. Your behaviour and attitudes leave a lasting impact on them. So, if you tend to have a green outlook (although I would eschew anything too extreme!), it is likely that your children would be inspired to be like you as well.

And what do parents get out of this? Happiness, cohesiveness, and knowing that there’s one more environmentally responsible child, who, in turn, would inspire many others. After all, it is each individual choice which determines the nature of future policies.

Paper of the week: Effects of prenatal exposure of pthalates

2010-04-23T12:38:00.000-07:00

Pthalates are esters of pthalic acid that are commonly added to plastics but also are found in diverse products ranging from cosmetics to pharmaceutical pills. As could be expected, studies that monitor phthalate metabolites in human populations have shown that they are widely present. Over the years, there have been many concerns over their effect on human health notably as hormonal disrupting agents. This has led to the regulation of some phthalates in consumer products in Europe and the United States, which in some cases,have been replaced with others. Recent evidences indicate that endocrine disruption might only be a tip of the iceberg and that pthalates might have other health effects as well.

It is well known that maternal exposure of pollutants make their way to the offspring and in many cases can have deleterious consequences. It appears that this dogma can also be applied to the case of the pthalates. In a study by Engel et al published in Environmental health perspectives,

http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/fetchArticle.action;jsessionid=E899A81379071E8E095EF53E962F597F?articleURI=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.0901470

the authors questioned whether there was any association between prenatal phthalate exposure to the behavior of offspring. The study occurred in a multiethnic prenatal population enrolled in the Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Study in New York City between 1998 and 2002. Urine samples of mothers during the third-trimester of pregnancy was collected and analyzed for phthalate metabolites. Subsequently, cognitive and behavioral development of the children was assessed between the ages of 4 and 9. Interestingly, the scientists found that increased concentrations of low-molecular-weight (LMW) phthalate metabolites in the mothers were associated with poorer scores on aggression, conduct problems, attention problems, and depression in the children. These results led them to conclude that behavioral domains adversely associated with prenatal exposure to LMW phthalates in this study are commonly affected in children clinically diagnosed with conduct or attention deficit hyperactivity disorders.

This study and several of its predecessors, extend the known adverse effects of pthalates, which calls for increased caution. What is urgently needed are more hard core studies elucidating the toxicology of pthalates and their metabolites, that will help us understand the consequences of exposure. However, these studies will take time; the evidence at hand should motivate nations to re-evaluate their policies on pthalates and enforce strict regulations.

Engel SM, Miodovnik A, Canfield RL, Zhu C, Silva MJ, Calafat AM, & Wolff MS (2010). Prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with childhood behavior and executive functioning. Environmental health perspectives, 118 (4), 565-71 PMID: 20106747

Paper of the Week: Humans and Biodiversity

2010-04-15T06:09:00.000-07:00

A new study interestingly implies that human activities may not always be bad for biodiversity.

Long before the colonizers arrived in South America, indigenous farmers, belonging to the Arauquinoid cultures, had already interfered with the Amazonian biodiversity. Their novel agricultural engineering methods had changed the savannah ecosystem, resulting in increased biodiversity. Thus states the solid paper, on 'Pre-Columbian agricultural landscapes, ecosystem engineers, and self-organized patchiness in Amazonia', published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (online before print, April 12th 2010), by Doyle McKey (Université de Montpellier II, France), Stéphen Rostain, José Iriarte, Bruno Glaser, Jago Jonathan Birk, Irene Holst, and Delphine Renard.

The savannahs of coastal Guyana tend to flood during the rains and are dry during the summer. However, strange complexes of mounds are seen in the terrain of these plains, running for 360 miles from Berbice River to Cayenne. Due to their perfect symmetry, the mounds were deduced to be man-made. The mounds drained well during the rains and floods (their drainage capacity was nine times as high as the seasonally flooded savannah). The authors deduce that these are large raised beds/fields, made out of the surrounding topsoil, for cultivating crops (a theory further substantiated by soil samples containing microfossils of maize, cassava, and squash), constructed by the pre-Columbian farmers, around 1000-700 years ago. The interesting point is that this farming was practiced in wastelands considered to be unsuitable for agriculture- a feat achieved due to their effective agricultural engineering.

When these fields were abandoned, the mounds were colonised by flora and fauna, thus creating a new ecosystem. These 'ecosystem engineers' (viz., ants such as Acromyrmex octospinosus and Ectatomma brunneum, termites such as Nasutitermitinae, and earthworms) built their nests on the raised beds so that the colonies wouldn't be flooded. Their burrowing aerated it further, helping in accumulating sufficient rainfall. Moreover, the mounds were fertilised as a result of them congregating organic matter into their nests and accumulating minerals such as nitrogen, potassium, and calcium. As a result, the perennial plants on the mounds flourished and their strong roots prevented the erosion of the mound. All of these alterations initiated by humans have resulted in a higher biodiversity than seen in the normal savannahs.

This study would give additional impetus to the debate over whether most of the Amazon rainforest and savannahs (commonly considered to be pristine) are sites of significant human occupation, especially during the pre-Columbian times. The authors suggest that this agricultural system could be a model for modern farming, especially considering the beneficial ecological changes.

Although this is a perfect example of a terrain modified by humans and maintained by Nature, it must be noted the increase in biodiversity was a result of 400-800 years of no/minimal human intervention. Secondly, the ‘punja’ technique of rice/paddy cultivation has a very similar methodology and is followed in parts of Kerala.

link: http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/04/07/0908925107.abstract?sid=93317154-3ce6-43c8-9a1e-456e24272c2b

McKey D, Rostain S, Iriarte J, Glaser B, Birk JJ, Holst I, & Renard D (2010). Pre-Columbian agricultural landscapes, ecosystem engineers, and self-organized patchiness in Amazonia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107 (17), 7823-8 PMID: 20385814

Synergy

2010-04-02T06:45:00.000-07:00

When scientists study a situation there is a tendency to regard each factor in isolation, on the very reasonable grounds that it is both easier and clearer. The real world however, rarely works like that and factors are often synergistic, that is the effect of their combination is greater than either alone. For example a combination of two anti-cancer drugs may be required to knock out a tumour´s resistance and to kill it, neither drug is effective alone. A recent paper from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute draws attention to how this might apply to tropical forests.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123190996/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0

Consider logging, hunting and fire. Logging of tropical forests of course destroys habitat, but in those rare examples where it is controlled the loss of species is less than you might think, they often still persist in any remaining fragments. Hunting in pristine forest tends to hampered by difficulty of access, and large scale fire is relatively rare as the canopy keeps lower levels damp and hard to burn. However logging needs roads and this opens up previously inaccessible areas to hunters, as well the as the effect of loggers themselves. It is estimated that a single logging camp in Indonesia consumed 33,000 kg of bushmeat per year. Ease of access and increased demand together can devastate animal populations, particularly of large animals.
Logging also opens the forest canopy, drying out the undergrowth beneath, and greatly increasing the chance of fire. Most tropical forest plants lack the fire defences such thick bark or fireproof seeds of pampus species, and so are wiped out by fire.

Another example is the way that native species can be exposed to foreign pathogens imported by humans from elsewhere, a form of "pathogen pollution". Native species of have no, or very little, natural immunity to these diseases. As with the great human plagues of the middle ages, this can devastate whole populations. Animals in small habitats fragmented by logging or agriculture can be wiped out. To make matters worse, many diseases are exacerbated by "environmental stressors" such as pesticides, UV, and pollutants damaging the immune system

The world is a very very complicated place, events combine in unexpected ways, and the Law of Unexpected Consequences is as draconian as it ever was. We need to be aware of this in our thinking.

Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010

2010-03-26T03:46:00.000-07:00

The Food and Agriculture Organisation’s ‘Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010’, which surveyed 233 countries, stated yesterday (25th March) that the global rate of deforestation has slowed down over the past decade, from 16 million hectares per annum in the 1990s to 13 million hectares per annum in the 2000s. Natural forest progression and afforestation programmes (mostly in China, India, Vietnam, and the US) have resulted in an addition of more hectares of new forests per annum (Asia had a net gain of 2.2 million ha per annum in the 2000s). Two countries which had the highest deforestation rates in the 1990s, Brazil and Indonesia, have significantly reduced this in the 2000s: from 2.9 million ha p.a to 2.6 million ha p.a in Brazil and from 1.9 million ha to .5 million ha in Indonesia). North and Central America had stable rates, whilst Europe had a slower rate of forest expansion than before.

Yet, forested areas around the size of Costa Rica is being destroyed each year, mainly due to clearing lands for agriculture and natural causes. The highest net annual forests loss were in South America (4 million ha) and Africa (3.4 million ha). Primary forests (36% of total forested area) have decreased by more than 40 million ha since 2000.

I have referred to some aspects of deforestation in Our Gossamer Planet, but I would like to point out the one great benefit of the forests (currently over four billion hectares)- they act as carbon sinks- absorbing and storing greenhouse gases.

There’s more in ‘Biodiversity in India’ in The Ship 09/10, published by St Anne’s.

The Assessment’s findings are seminal, with 2010 being the UN-designated International Year of Biodiversity. Yet, the aim should be to reduce global annual deforestation rates to the proportions of a school’s playground, or perhaps even less!

Paper of the week

2010-03-20T16:50:00.000-07:00

Broadly, the conflict between politics and science is the running theme of the paper of the week. The subject of interest is the African elephant, an endangered species, the number of which is seriously dwindling due to poaching. By reviewing a large body of research from several groups including that from the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), the paper by Wasser et al, Elephants, Ivory, and Trade, Science 12 March 2010

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/327/5971/1331
provides evidence of the prevalence of a large scale of illegal ivory trade in Africa confirming that most of this continent lacks adequate controls for the protection of elephants. Equally the inability of the largest consumer nations mainly China and Japan to curb illegally traded ivory complicates the issue further. The paper argues a case against the petition to CITES by Tanzania and Zambia the largest sources and transit regions of illegal ivory for down-listing the conservation status of elephants for the one-off sale of stock piled ivory. The international group of authors are emphatic about disallowing such a sale which in their opinion which would promote illegal trade, split the appendix listing of the species and also sow discord among conservation workers.

The role protection agencies play in conservation of flora and fauna is undisputable. Enforcement of sensible and judicial rules and regulations promote species conservation. And as the paper aptly points out, policy enforcing organisations such a CITES will only satisfy its role with criteria that it puts science ahead of politics. Whilst the paper does offer valuable insight into the loopholes in legalities and law enforcement, it falls short of addressing some important issues. Firstly, it fails to offer any insight into to whether and how CITES can effectively curb illegal trade which based on its current record of ambiguous and confusing policies is difficult to buy into. Secondly, how can the petitioners nor indeed other African nations be convinced that selling the stock piled ivory is not the way forward. Having a set of rules is one thing, enforcing it is another. Therefore, ‘winning the hearts and minds’ of the policy enforcers in these nations is perhaps the biggest hurdle of all.

When frogs rule the world?

2010-03-12T15:37:00.000-08:00

Here's some good news, although not that novel. But there has been so much of bad news relating to species decline globally that we need to remind ourselves that things might not be all that gloomy. Early last year, new species of amphibians were discovered in Ecuador & in Madagascar. In the case of the latter, many of these species were found outside of the conservation area. Discoveries such as these provides a glimmer of hope that somewhere in the deep depths of unspoilt or less spoilt rainforests are undiscovered species.This does not also exclude the possibility that a new species might be found in some nook and corner of the urban environment. Most importantly, such finding is a clarion call for us to raise environmental awareness and ensure that the habitat for these creatures are preserved. Also, next time you hear a croak, do give a second look, chances are highly unlikely that it might turn into a prince or princess as the case may; but if it does look unusual, photograph it and try to find out what species it is. Who knows you might be identifying a new species! For some reason that defies explanation, amphibians seem to be adapting or escaping from human onslaught on its environment.

If I have a favourite among the new species, it has got to be the 'glass frog'. Follow this link for a beautiful video from National Geographic

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090616-ecuador-newspecies-video-vin.html

Time to save Nemo, his home & his friends

2010-03-12T14:41:00.000-08:00

What links underwater volcanic springs,coral reefs & some researchers from Plymouth? Interestingly it is ocean acidification. There are an estimated 50,000 volcanic springs in the depths of the sea, which spew out carbon-di-oxide among other things into its surrounding. So what’s special about this you might ask. Well, the scientists from University of Plymouth have come up with an ingenious use for this naturally occurring phenomenon. They observed that water near the vents of these volcanoes is more acidic than the surrounding sea water, reaching to the predicted acidity level of oceans in three or four decades ,if ocean acidification due to anthropogenic activities is uncurtailed. This phenomenon therefore allows the use of these vents as labs on- the- sea for measuring the effect of ocean acidification on the growth of marine flora and fauna . As could be expected, the researchers found that the normally colourful sea bed often dotted with corals and sea urchins are replaced by sea grasses and invasive algae when waters become more acidic, an alarming reminder of what might happen if carbon-di-oxide emissions are left unchecked. The time is ripe for some action if we care about Nemo!

Relevant links
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article5936330.ece
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/oct/05/climatechange.italy
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/climatechange/7264210/Coral-reefs-being-destroyed-by-climate-change.html
http://www2.disney.co.uk/DisneyMovies/nemo/

Paper of the Week

2010-03-10T21:25:00.000-08:00

Natalia Shakhova, Igor Semiletov, and collaborators (of University of Alaska’s International Arctic Research Centre and Russian Academy of Sciences in Vladivostok) published a paper last week in Science, titled ‘Extensive Methane Venting to the Atmosphere from Sediments of the East Siberian Arctic Shelf’. They declared that the methane-rich, shallow East Siberian Arctic Shelf (ESAS), with a seafloor area of more than 772,200 square miles (three times the area of the Siberian wetlands, which are considered to be a chief source of atmospheric methane), is venting methane (the greenhouse gas) into the air and might trigger abrupt global warming.

After collecting over 5000 samples of seawater, the scientists measured the levels of dissolved methane at varying depths. High methane concentrations were observed in more than 80% of deep water and more than 50% of surface water samples, with most having concentrations more than eight times the normal amount in the Arctic Ocean. Analysing the air directly above the water surface and at higher elevations confirmed their findings. The team calculated that the region is releasing about 7 teragrams per annum (1 teragram is approximately 1.1 million tonnes), which is equal to the amount of methane emitted from the oceans (about 2% of the overall methane emissions to the atmosphere). As a result, more than 100 hotspots were located where methane is leaking from the sub-sea permafrost, which is believed to generally act as a lid to contain the methane reservoir.

When the earth becomes warm, warmer seawater enters the area. If and when the permafrost thaws, the stored frozen methane is released in two ways: Firstly, the stored organic material (ESAS, being shallow and averaging around 50 meters in depth, would have been submerged or terrestrial over the millennia) decomposes and gradually releases methane. Secondly, methane gas or methane hydrates could be released. Although methane usually oxidises into carbon dioxide before reaching the surface of deeper waters, it escapes to the atmosphere in the shallow ESAS.

The current average methane concentrations in the Arctic is around 1.85 ppm (which is the highest in 40,000 years), with much higher concentrations in ESAS- very alarming when considering that the Earth’s geological record indicates that atmospheric methane concentrations are between 0.3 to 0.4 ppm (during cold periods) and 0.6 to 0.7 ppm (during warm periods). As pointed out by Martin Heimann in his perspective in ‘Climate Change: How Stable Is the Methane Cycle?’ (in the same edition of Science), more warming in the Arctic, implies more destablisation of the permafrost, which implies more release of methane and the creation of ‘a positive feedback loop that amplifies global warming’.

Despite the current controversies in the field and the increased scepticisim about the effects of climate change, these findings might have heavy implications. A caveat is the vagueness over whether this is a new phenomenon or whether it is a constant natural phenomenon. What are the precise factors behind this? Will there be further larger release of methane? Will global warming accelerate this release? What would happen in such a scenario? Would it result in a rapid and devastating climate change, as predicted?

Additional reference:
http://www.uaf.edu/news/news/20100303192545.html

Sunlight on the sea

2010-02-26T11:38:00.000-08:00

In this last week the Brazilian cities of Sao Paulo and Recife have experienced records levels of UV exposure. While a UV index of 6-7 is ¨high risk", and "very high risk" is 8-10, Sao Paulo was scorched with an index of 14.

As the sun burns us it also beats down on the ocean surface and the algae that live there. What happens next is the subject of the CLAW hypothesis, which proposes a negative feedback loop, as follows.....

Dimethylsulphide produced by phytoplankton is oxidised by bacteria to produce a sulphate aerosol on the sea surface which is a major source of cloud condensation nuclei. So more clouds, less photosynthesis and a feedback loop.

That´s fine, but of course the real world is much more complicated than that. For instance, solar radiation is a double edged sword. There is increased photosynthesis, and temperature for growth, but what of UV? UV-B damages DNA in the bacteria required for DMS oxidation, killing them. It also harms the phytoplankton, who respond by producing anti-oxidants, including DMS. Together these factors increase considerably the amount of DMS in the ocean, so oceanic [DMS] and levels of UV are linked through the year. But DMS in the atmosphere and the surface waters is attacked by UV, leading to it´s photo destruction.

So what happens when UV increases beyond previous levels? Does the extra production of DMS still lead to more cloud cover, a negative feedback? Or does UV kill off the oxidising bacteria and cause photodestruction in the atmosphere, leading to less cloud clover, and in turn, more UV exposure - a positive feedback loop? Oceanic acidification, as described previously by Ruth, changes water chemistry and inhibits phytoplankton growth, and so complicates matters still further.

The processes mentioned here take place on such a massive scale that they affect deeply the world climate. They are incredibly complex, and rely on a interlinked series of feedback loops. What happens when feedback is disrupted has yet to be seen.

For more detail see;

Miles, CJ, Bell, TG, Lenton, TM 2009. Testing the relationship between the solar radiation dose and surface DMS concentrations using ub situ data. Biogeosciences, 6, 1927-1934.

Miles, C., Bell, T., & Lenton, T. (2009). Testing the relationship between the solar radiation dose and surface DMS concentrations using in situ data Biogeosciences, 6 (9), 1927-1934 DOI: 10.5194/bg-6-1927-2009

Paper of the week: What ocean acidification means for the plankton

2010-02-21T09:39:00.000-08:00

It appears that we humans had taken oceans for granted for too long. A widely known fact is that most of what we discard makes its way to oceans. Oceans are sinks for all things including 1/3 of the carbon dioxide that has been released in the last 200 years. This has resulted in the acidification of the oceans. The science behind is that carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water. This raises the hydrogen ion concentration and bicarbonate ions, but limits carbonate ions. This interferes with the ability of many marine plankton to build shells. We are just beginning to understand how anthropogenic ocean acidification affects marine ecosystems and the long term consequences of this phenomenon. A report released from a team of over 100 European scientists during the Copenhagen Summit highlights this fact and alleged that marine species are being affected by the acidification of the oceans which according to the scientists are irreversible. According to the document, acidification is occurring at such a rapid pace increasing by 30% since industrial revolution and states that if CO2 emissions are not curtailed it will severely affect coral reefs, and algae. This prompts the question asking whether the acidification of oceans is uniform & universal? It seems not so, with oceans around the globe showing different degrees of acidification. North Atlantic, Pacific and Arctic seas are predicted to be affected by this phenomenon the most.

Is there any cause for concern? Absolutely, The effect of acidification on plankton cannot be trivialised as they are the powerhouses and form the lower echelons of the ecosystem on which the larger vertebrates subsist.

Where does the evidence for the acidification affecting plankton come from? There is convincing evidence from studies on limited species- cocolithophores and formaniferans. But there are caveats, as previous studies by different research groups on cocolithophore species had shown that not all species behave in the same way to increased carbon dioxide levels. While some species show decreased calcification , others show no change , yet another show non linear calcification and interestingly some show increased calcification. In addition, closely related organisms such as tropical and temperate sea urchins showed different responses to acidification. Even among same species, results from different laboratories showed contrasting effects. A reason for this has been attributed to different methods the labs used in mimicking acidification. Other reasons could be due to difference in experimental conditions, for example access of the species to nutrientss , temperature etc, all of which can consequently affect the way the organisms respond. Although these are valid reasons, it will be hard to convince general public of the enormity of the situation with such conflicting results. This warrants further studies.

The interests in ocean acidification has been rekindled recently by the publication of a research paper from some researchers from Princeton who have given a scientific basis explaining how acidification is deleterious to plankton. It all falls on iron which is a nutrient for phytoplankton. The chemistry of iron is extremely sensitive to pH and the acidification of the sea water will alter its availability to the planktons. Shi et al showed that acidification decreased the iron uptake of phytoplankton in the laboratory. The downside of this study is that the work was done in the laboratory and field studies are needed to corroborate this.

Ocean acidification is a crtical issue and we should act urgently. Often action requires concrete evidence. A unified protocol experimental protocol that is followed globally would address many of the discrepancies posed by lab based research as advocated by the researcher Victoria Fabry. But the proof of the pudding are evidences of field work. However one only hopes that those will not uncover problems that have progressed to such an extent that it is a impossible to be mitigated.

Shi et al, Science 327 (2010)
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/5966/676

Fabry VJ, Science 320 (2008)
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1157130v1

(PS- The topic of mismanagement of oceans was touched upon in a previous blog 'Ten Years Hence' By David Buss

Shi D, Xu Y, Hopkinson BM, & Morel FM (2010). Effect of ocean acidification on iron availability to marine phytoplankton. Science (New York, N.Y.), 327 (5966), 676-9 PMID: 20075213

Fabry, V. (2008). OCEAN SCIENCE: Marine Calcifiers in a High-CO2 Ocean Science, 320 (5879), 1020-1022 DOI: 10.1126/science.1157130

Paper of the Week: The link between snowfall increase in Antarctica and drought in southwest Western Australia

2010-02-16T03:27:00.000-08:00

Tas van Ommen and Vin Morgan, of the Australian Antarctic Division, published a paper ‘Snowfall increase in coastal East Antarctica linked with southwest Western Australian drought’ in Nature Geosciences.

Turns out that this region of Australia has been facing a 40-year drought which was attributed to several factors, such as ‘natural variability, changes in land use, ocean temperatures and atmospheric circulation’. After evaluating the precipitation records of the two regions (East Antarctica and southwest Western Australia), the authors report an inverse correlation, surmising that the rain which should have fallen in Australia may have moved to Antarctica, resulting in heavy snowfall.

What needs to be evaluated is whether this is purely due to anthropogenic climate change and whether the study can be substantiated by constructing similar correlations in other southern hemisphere nations which also has/had similar conditions of drought.

van Ommen, T., & Morgan, V. (2010). Snowfall increase in coastal East Antarctica linked with southwest Western Australian drought Nature Geoscience, 3 (4), 267-272 DOI: 10.1038/ngeo761

Nature and Nurture: Like a Garden

2010-02-12T04:48:00.000-08:00

Come forth into the light of things,
Let nature be your teacher.- William Wordsworth

An oft-used metaphor compares children to sensitive plants in a garden. Each plant has its own specific requirements for its optimal growth, and it’s a wise gardener’s forte to ensure that the plants flourish.

My aim is not to elaborate on the above, but to point out how children’s participation in gardening can instill a deeper appreciation for nature and the environment (activities which can be followed by anyone!).

Perhaps a few readers might roll their eyes considering it to be unfeasible, given that they reside in a 500 sq ft apartment. Of course, although we might be more than happy to visualise a garden of some acres (complete with lawns, mazes, hedges, ponds, gazebos, and greenhouses), a miniature garden can be created in your own apartment, or even inside your own room! A particularly industrious acquaintance at Keble College once maintained a miniature garden of herbs on the small round table in his college room! Thus, the possibilities are many: the balcony/porch, the loo, or even the kitchen’s window sill. In fact, perhaps it is more sensible to grow plants indoors in temperate countries, such as UK, given the harshness of autumn and winter seasons!

Now that we have identified sites to have a (miniature) garden, children could be encouraged to take part in cultivating flowering plants, as well as vegetables. The latter might provide more perceptible utility, given that it could end up on the dining table!

Another activity would be to identify plants, and, if possible, to maintain a herbarium or scrap book with all the information. Apart from providing practical experience, supplementary to the theoretical coursework at school, gardening can instill a love for nature and environment and proactive attitude towards its preservation. Needless to say, it is tough to quantify the aesthetic utility and happiness which one derives from enjoying the garden and when participating in gardening.

Beth Shalom, as Ruth mentioned, is a true hotchpotch of all kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs, a cumulative result of our father’s background in Botany. Not only are our neighbours very less enthusiastic about this (citing that the leaves from our trees litter their grounds and that our vegetation harbour dangerous animals which are determined to dispatch them off), many a ‘well-wisher’ have advised clearing away all plants and fit concrete/tiles around the house (as is the norm). Houses with a profusion of plants are tagged as ‘haunted’ and ‘cursed’, since the inevitable shade is associated with evil. There are also the practical problems of clogging up the drainpipes and the creepy crawlies which seek either to nestle under fallen leaves or to pay a personal visit to your room. Inevitably, our mother often succumbed to these ‘practical wisdom’, and thus a few plants were hewn down.

Yet, there were so many instances in which we were encouraged to appreciate plants. Our father would demonstrate how to make sections of plants and would show us the cross-sections of leaves, roots, and stems under our microscope. Mitosis was another interesting demonstration. Existing mature trees supplied tamarind, varieties of jackfruits and mangoes, not to mention coconuts (the Kera of Kerala)! There were also other shrubs such as mulberry, cherries, and gooseberry. We (the kids) also used to harvest arecanut, pepper, and coffee. Often we attempted to cultivate organic vegetables: whilst some efforts were successful, it would be a tad disappointing when the so-labelled tomato seed germinated into chilli plants!

If you indeed have a few sq ft, or cents, or acres, why not grow plants and increase the biodiversity of the area? For where flora is, fauna will follow.

Save Our Tigers

2010-02-10T10:44:00.000-08:00

The Save Our Tigers is a collaborative campaign run by Aircel and WWF-India.

I recently came across their poignant advert (which you can view here).

With the Chinese New Year (interestingly, of the Tiger!) barely 3 days away, tigers have been placed on WWF’s list of ten critically important endangered species facing extinction. There are only 3200 tigers left in this world (a reduction of 95%), spread over the subspecies of the Amur, Bengal, Indochinese, Malayan, and Sumatran tigers. Three subspecies (viz. Bali, Caspian, and Javan tigers) are now extinct, and the South China tiger have not been sighted for the past 25 years.

In India, from an estimated 40,000 tigers a century ago, only 1411 tigers remain in the wild (according to a study conducted by the Wildlife Institute of India, in association with NTCA, Government of India, 2008). The Bengal tigers (the national animal of India) have, unfortunately, become an easy victim to the avaricious and callous man. It was cruelly hunted during the colonial times and its parts are now used in certain indigenous/traditional Asian medicine.

Please, let not our descendants read about the tigers like we now read about the dodo.

Please register your support and do the spread the word to your friends and acquaintances as well. You can also join the Facebook page or tweet @saveourtigers

Ten Years Hence...

2010-02-06T10:45:00.000-08:00

Our esteemed editor has asked me to contribute a few thoughts on the way the environment might change in the next ten years.

I suppose the first thought that enters my head is that, in many ways, where we are now is better than any time in the last 150 years, at least in industrialised countries. Rivers are cleaner and the air is purer. This has perhaps given a false sense of confidence.

The "problem" with global warming is that it is not a readily perceived threat. An approaching asteroid, for example, could be shown on tv and everybody would understand. Climate change however is more nebulous, especially after the winter Europe is experiencing. It needs to be taken on trust, and when that trust is apparently abused to raise taxes or commodity prices, people become cynical. It will indeed be very interesting to see what happens in this area in the next 10 years.

So, should I make a prediction for the next Big Thing over this decade? Frankly, only a fool would attempt to see that far into the future, so here goes. We've cleaned up the environment around us, we're starting to address changes in the atmosphere, but one area is nicely out of sight - the ocean. This has already been touched on by sann2282. For centuries everything we pour into our sewers or rivers has ended up here, not to mention the dumping of solid waste. As pressure on landfill sites increases, the later is likely to increase. Cleaning rivers is easy, you just stop adding junk, and what's there flows away, but rubbish in the ocean has nowhere to go. Of course it is very, very, big, and degradation does takes place. But so does concentration, as has been seen in the Sargasso sea and the Pacific Trash Vortex. Eventually we will have to address this.

Nature and Nurture- Pets (part 2)

2010-01-25T03:09:00.000-08:00

The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated- Gandhi

For a truly beneficial metamorphosis, change has to first commence from within. This is of great significance especially if children seek to emulate the very attitudes seen in their parents. Of course, I may be generalising. But yet, undeniably, parents wield a tremendous influence- whether positive or negative.

One approach towards creating environmentally responsible citizens of tomorrow is by parents instilling in them a love for fauna. This can be easily started by keeping pets (and the choices are infinite: fishes, cats, dogs, hamsters, mice…. and, if space permits, even hens and goats) and encouraging children to participate in the upkeep of these animals, even (and especially) during the times when it falls ill. Having pets also exposes children to the cycles and mysteries of life- lessons best learned from nature than from the classroom- and they would develop a supportive stance towards the welfare of other animals too. Similarly, hobbies could be started, such as identifying the flora and fauna (and migratory animals) around them and starting a photo collection of these.

At Beth Shalom, we’ve been brought up with animals. We would help in the upkeep of a neighbour’s cows (from where we also bought milk), and we ourselves used to have hens. Even now, we have fishes, cats, and a dog, and provide feed for pigeons and squirrels, and a bird bath (which is also frequented by crows and kites). Our parents also ensure that some fruits are left unplucked so that the urban fauna could enjoy these in leisure.

As Ruth mentioned, our animal rescue activities concentrated not just on our pets, but also on the urban wildlife in our locality, which included mongoose, stray cats, squirrels, bats, insects, and numerous birds (including crow pheasants, koels, sparrows, wagtails, owls, and barbets). It is hard to quantify the happiness upon seeing these recover and re-enter into the world!

Nature and Nurture- part 1

2010-01-23T06:27:00.000-08:00

When replying to Ruth’s previous post, I was rather bothered to realise that my ‘comment’ was assuming the dimensions of a fully-fledged blog post! But since this has drifted on into a post of epic proportions, I shall post my responses, over the next few days, in easily digestible capsules.

So yes, indeed! But whilst I am so grateful to our parents for instilling in us an appreciation and awareness of nature and the environment, it is hard to find such attitude in a good proportion of parents. Perhaps, it is because they don’t give two hoots to the environment (and nature), for their sole priority is the progress of themselves and their families. Even if the environment is being destroyed around them, they wouldn’t raise a word of dissent unless this destruction results in affecting them as well.

Undeniably, two sets of individuals hold a great influence over the character development of a child: parents and educators. In fact, although education opens the minds of these children, parents (naturally) play a much more decisive role in determining the attitudes towards nature and the environment. So how can parents mold the environmentally responsible citizens of tomorrow? More tomorrow…..

The micro-ecosystems in our gardens

2010-01-19T12:23:00.000-08:00

An unique gift my parents have given me is an increased awareness of the environment . The compound where our family home is located is a forest in its own right, with several mature trees, hundreds of shrubs and herbs. The house is surrounded by a diverse garden, not one of those perfectly manicured ones akin to those listed on 'Country Life' , but a disorderly array of flora that forms the habitat of many species of fauna. As long as I can remember, my siblings and I were taught to appreciate, respect and protect the living forms around thus. Many a time, one of my siblings would bring an injured animal to the house . This would be followed promptly by frenetic phone calls to the vet , the WWF and any portal of further information relating to the potential infirmity the animal had, and identification of remedial measures. Often these animals would be nursed to health and then released . On other occassions, some of the injured animals would die resulting in tears and tantrums.

Our garden is still a haven for several species of birds, notably the crow pheasant, flycatchers, Drongos, mynah's ,koel, sunbird, the occasional woodpecker, kingfishers and visiting parakeets in summer. This is only a short list. Palm civets, squirrels, fruit bats & mongoose are notable mammals. My parents have baskets on tree tops where they leave food for the squirrels. The diversity of flora is perhaps another reason for the myriads of butterfly species that frequent our garden. Very few of our neighbours share our enthusiasm to a degree . The gardens of some houses are paved with concrete with very few plants forming a hostile terrain for fauna. The contrast is all too visible to see, reflecting what happens in the wilderness.

All it takes is a litle effort. A small step towards preserving the ecosystems in our backyard will no doubt result in positive ramifications beyond our confines.

Save my seas

2010-01-19T01:48:00.000-08:00

Here’s a little food for thought, which may especially resonate for those of us who diligently maintain aquariums and ensures that no trace of oil ends up in the water. Now, what happens to the marine ecosystems, with all the commercial liners, merchant vessels, and tankers spewing out such pollutants?

Welcome to ECORATORIO

2010-01-14T12:45:00.000-08:00

Thank you for visiting this blog. Whatever reason may have brought you to this blog, we hope that you will find an increased appreciation for our fragile planet here. Although we realize, that this blog might not answer the questions that you have, we hope that it will certainly stimulate more .

This blog is /will feature contributions from several people as opposed to one single person.

Who are we?

We are a handful of individuals who are concerned about the environment. We are based in three different continents : Asia, South America and Europe. We were educated in some of the well known universities on different disciplines and are employed in different facets, but unified by one single thread that binds us-our concern for the environment. Some of us have engaged/ or are currently working on research projects concerned with environment. We do not claim to know all the answers to the questions, but we hope that we can stimulate some degree of healthy debate. Currently there are four contributors to this blog- DB-based in Brazil, SS & JS -based in India and RS based in the UK.

So what is ecoratorio?

We made this word up by combining ecology and oratorio. We believe that the name is apt for our thoughts in the cyberspace because it encapsulates the two key elements that are the cornerstones of this blog.

The Merrian Webster dictionary defines an oratorio as 'a lengthy choral work usually of a religious nature consisting chiefly of recitatives, arias, and choruses without action or scenery'. We believe that a concern for the environment is a sacred duty. Here we will give our views on it. You are unlikely to find that our views agree with each other and perhaps that is where our blog will differ. After all we are indviduals, with our individual views which will be reflected here.